The Vietnam War

1. The Vietnam War The Domino Theory, Containment & Nationalism

2. OVERVIEW In this lesson we examine: • The role of nationalism in Indochina • Reasons for American involvement • Factors towards US withdrawal • “Vietnamization” • Long-term consequences

3. Nationalism in indochina • Prior to WWII, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam were part of French Indochina • During WWII and with US support, local resistance fighters battled against the Japanese occupation • At Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, forced the returning French colonial powers to surrender despite American resources and air support Despite America’s tradition of being anti-imperialist, what could explain the US support of French colonial rule in Indochina?

4. Nationalism in indochina Context Question: When Korea was occupied in the north by Soviet forces and in the south by US forces, how successful were attempts to unify the peninsula? What explains the result?

5. Nationalism in indochina During the Geneva Conference of 1954 and 1962, French and Vietnamese representatives attempted to negotiate a peace treaty: • The French agreed to divide Indochina into: Laos, Cambodia, North Vietnam and South Vietnam • North Vietnam was led by the Russian and Chinese-backed, Ho Chi Minh • South Vietnam was led by a US-backed, Catholic, anti-Communist, Ngo Dinh Diem • With US support, South Vietnam refused to sign the Geneva agreements and instead joined SEATO; the planned 1956 elections to unite the country never happened Why were the US so determined to undermine the democratic processes that were planned at the Geneva Conference?

6. US INVOLVEMENT • The ‘domino theory’ was a belief that by allowing a single nation to fall to communism, other nations would also become communist • It was considered an extension of the Truman Doctrine • With regard to Vietnam, President Eisenhower said: “You have a row of dominoes set up; you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is that it will go over very quickly.” In what way was the domino theory overly simplistic in its assessment of communist influence?

7. US involvement • In 1955 the US helped to create the ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam) • Northern-backed, communist NLF (National Liberation Front) started to infiltrate rural villages in South Vietnam • The “Viet Cong” or PLAF (People’s Liberation Armed Forces) began fighting ARVN forces with increasing success Given the colonial tradition of Vietnam, how might the people view the intentions of North Vietnamese forces versus South Vietnamese forces?

8. US involvement • President Kennedy sent US “advisers” to assist in counter-insurgency operations, including “strategic hamlets” • US soldiers in Vietnam increased - in 1961 there were 800; by the end of 1963 there were nearly 17,000 • US aircraft sprayed “Agent Orange” to defoliate suspected Viet Cong bases • President Johnson ordered secret operations into North Vietnam • US ships increased surveillance operations along North Vietnamese coast • US Air Force began secret bombing of the “Ho Chi Minh Trail” in Laos – the supply route from North Vietnam to the Viet Cong What dangerous precedent was established by these American presidents in their use of secret operations in Southeast Asia? What other options did the US have in terms of dealing with the Viet Cong?

9. US involvement • On Aug 2, 1964, US warships claimed that North Vietnamese vessels had fired upon them in the Gulf of Tonkin • President Johnson asked Congress for powers to help defend South Vietnam from aggression but this was not a declaration of war • North Vietnam’s PAVN (People’s Army of Vietnam) launched attacks against the US – possible negotiations were broken off • US forces began intensive bombing campaign of North Vietnam; because the airbases needed protection, US ground forces were sent in • From March to June 1965, US forces increased from 3,500 to around 74,000 What modern conflicts also were initiated with presidential powers and not with official declarations of war? Did these actions prove to have effective resolutions?

10. Factors Towards Withdrawal Lack of local support • Poor leadership - President Ngo Dinh Diem was a Catholic and his government persecuted Buddhist monasteries; some monks publicly burned themselves in protest • Failure to gain “hearts and minds” - the strategic hamlet program was highly unpopular; many Vietnamese saw the Americans as foreign imperialists • Government instability - Ngo Dinh Diem was assassinated in a coup with some US support. After him, there would be continuous changes of government from one leader to another From its very start, what were the major reasons that the US war in Vietnam could not be won?

11. Factors Towards Withdrawal Limitations on combat operations • US forces had difficulty determining friendly forces from opponent forces • US forces had superior training, greater firepower and air superiority however it was ill-suited for guerrilla combat • US forces could not attack the Ho Chi Minh supply trail on the ground because it had agreed to respect Laotian sovereignty • US forces had to avoid crossing into North Vietnamese territory because Congress had not declared war

12. Factors Towards Withdrawal Differences of perspective The US and South Vietnamese goal was to fight a “limited war”; to fight the North to a standstill. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong goal was to fight a “total war” and force the US to leave Vietnam.

13. Factors Towards Withdrawal The Role of the Media • Photographer and TV journalists had unprecedented access to military areas and combat zones – the war was brought into American living rooms • Conflicting messages – US armed forces often reported high body counts of Vietcong casualties and underreported civilian and US casualties

14. Factors Towards Withdrawal The My Lai Massacre • During a routine search for Viet Cong in the spring of 1968, US soldiers rounded up several hundred civilians in My Lai and executed them • The US army attempted a cover-up, but photo evidence and eye-witness accounts were presented by US media to the American public • Soldiers were prosecuted in court-martials but their sentences were reduced

15. Factors Towards Withdrawal Counter-culture • As the war continued and the media captured the US efforts, the protest movement gathered strength • Young men who were conscripted destroyed their draft cards or fled to other countries as “draft dodgers” • High-profile celebrities and other social groups began to speak out against the war

16. “Vietnamization” Context Question: A major part of Robert Nixon’s election as president was “peace with honor” in the Vietnam conflict. How could President Nixon withdraw American troops but guarantee communism would not spread?

17. “Vietnamization” Nixon’s plan • Escalation - to increase direct attacks upon North Vietnam to reduce their influence in the South • “Vietnamization” – to increase funding and training of South Vietnamese forces so that they could defend themselves • Paris Peace Conference - Jan 1973: • US prisoners of war would be returned • North and South Vietnam would have a ceasefire • All US combat operations in Laos and Cambodia would end

18. “Vietnamization” After US forces had left by 1975, conflict between North and South Vietnam resumed: • The South’s ARVN had disintegrated and was unable to resist the invading Northern forces • Southern Vietnamese who were fearful of the Communist takeover began to leave the country; those who could not leave with the evacuating US forces escaped on ships to Western countries

19. Long term consequences The human and economic costs of the conflict were enormous: • South Vietnamese ARVN: 250,000 dead and wounded • North Vietnamese PAVN and Viet Cong forces: more than 500,000 dead and wounded • South Vietnamese civilians: between 300,000-500,000 dead and wounded • US forces: around 55,000 dead and 300,000 wounded • Monetary cost to US taxpayers: around $133 billion From the perspectives of the domino theory, the US was considered to be somewhat successful. How?

20. Summary Questions • What was the source of conflict between France and the people of Vietnam after 1945? • Why did the US get involved in supporting South Vietnam against the Viet Cong? • What were the major factors working against the US and South Vietnamese government? • How was the Vietnam conflict ultimately resolved?