Chapter 3 Why Do Firms Cluster?

1. Chapter 3Why Do Firms Cluster?

2. Purpose • In the factory town model of chapter 1, firms were not attracted to locations where other competitors operated. • However, most firms are attracted to the locations of other firms. In this chapter we explore the forces that cause firms to locate close to one another in clusters. • When firms realize cost savings from concentration they locate close to one another.

3. Clustering of Economic Activity Economic Production Per Square Kilometer in the United States

4. How do firms of a given industry locate? • Industry: Costume Jewelry

5. How do firms of a given industry locate? • Industry: Carpets and Rugs

6. Economies from Location • Localization Economies: refers to cost savings when firms of a given industry locate together. • Urbanization Economies: refers to cost saving from locating together of firms across different industries. The location of one industry attracts another. • Urbanization economies leads to the development of large diverse cities. • Urbanization and localization economies are termed agglomeration economies

7. Why do Firms Cluster? • 1. Sharing Intermediate Inputs • The Button-Dress model: • Button making is subject to economies of scale. Dress makers will not make their own buttons. They will buy them from a few independent button makers who can realize cost savings as they face a large demand. (why?)

8. Economies of Scale in Button Making .. The cost of a button produced by a dress maker .. .. 10 Cost of one button The cost of a button manufactured by a button producer 3 1 20 buttons

9. Model features • Firms producing high fashion dresses: small and nimble. • Scale economies in producing buttons large relative to demand of single dressmaker. • Face time require to design and fabricate buttons to fit dresses. • Modification cost: dress maker pays an extra cost to modify the button to fit his need • Variety in types of buttons demanded (shape, finish, color).

10. The more firms in a cluster, the lower will be the unit cost of buttons

11. Cost Saving in a cluster • Button cost lower in cluster: Figure 3.1 • Higher total demand for buttons allow button maker to realize economies of scale. • Button makers can specialize in types of buttons, reducing modification costs

12. Self-Reinforcing Effects of Clustering • The Tradeoffs • Benefit: Localization economies reduce cost of intermediate input • Cost: Competition for workers increases labor cost • Starting with isolated firms, will a cluster of firms form? • How big will the cluster be?

15. Another Example: High-Technology Firms • Rapidly changing products necessitates intermediate inputs • Electronic components • Testing facilities • Firms share intermediate input suppliers to exploit scale economies • Face time in design and fabrication requires proximity and cluster

16. Why do Firms Cluster? • 2. Sharing A labor Pool • Sharing a labor pool is beneficial to firms given significant variation in demand facing each firm, e.g., Software & TV programs. • Industry-wide demand is constant: zero-sum changes in demands facing individual firms • A cluster of firms facilitates the transfer of workers from unsuccessful firms to successful ones.

17. Cluster vs. Isolated Site • A firm has two choices. Either to locate in: • an isolated site or • in a cluster? • Which option does the firm prefer? • This will depend on the labor cost under each. • How does the labor supply curve look like in each case?

18. What would the wage be in the cluster to ensure locational equilibrium?

19. To achieve locational equilibrium, the wage in the cluster should equal the expected wage in the isolated Site. • EW= ½ *16 + ½ *4 = 10

20. Which location results in a higher profit? • How can we represent firm profit graphically? • Remember: Labor demand is the marginal revenue product (MRP); the dollar value created by the extra worker. • Example: $ 40 30 40 30 20 10 20 10 MRP 1 2 3 4 Quantity of Labor

21. Which location results in a higher profit? • How can we represent firm profit graphically? • The wage line is the cost of hiring an extra worker • Assume the wage is $20 • Firm profit is the difference between MRP and the wage. $ 40 30 20 Labor Demand 10 MRP 1 2 3 4 Quantity of Labor

22. Move to Cluster Increases Expected Profit $48 $147 12 $3 $48 Expected profit in an isolated site= ½ .48 + ½ .48 =$48 Expected profit in an isolated site= ½ .147 + ½ .3 =$75

23. Why do Firms Cluster? • 3. Labor Matching • Firms and workers not always perfectly matched. • Mismatches require training costs to eliminate skill gap. • Show that larger city allows better matches

24. A Model of Labor Matching • Each firm enters market with skill requirement • Firms compete for workers driving profit to zero • Each firm offers a wage of $12 • Each firm hires 2 workers • Workers have varying skills on unit circle • Workers incur training cost to close gap • Workers accept highest net wage

25. Skills Matching 1. Assume a market with 2 firms 3. The skill gap is 1/8. W1 0 1/8 3. The worker incurs a training cost proportional to the skill gap. Training cost= skill gap * unit training cost. W4 6/8 2/8 W2 2. …and 4 workers with skills that are evenly distributed around a unit circle 5/8 4/8 W3

26. Net Wage • The worker incurs the training cost. • Training cost=skill gap x unit training cost. • Net wage = Gross wage- training cost. • Suppose the gross wage=$12, the unit training cost is 24 (which is the training cost for a unit of skill difference), then can you calculate the net wage?

27. More Skill Types 1. The wage gap declines from 1/8 to 1/12 As the number of workers increases to 6. 2. Workers incur a lower training cost 3. What is the net wage?

28. Net Wage

29. Agglomeration economies • Workers are better off in a cluster of workers. • Are firms better off? • The higher net wage attracts more workers to live in large numbers in cities, which attracts more firms that compete for workers.

30. Why do Firms Cluster? • 4. Knowledge Spillovers • Firms in an industry share ideas and knowledge • mysteries of trade are “in the air” • innovations are promptly discussed, improved, and adopted “... a close relationship, almost a partnership, grows up among related firms in a given geographical area. The ability, for example, of members of the group to meet without inconvenience to discuss common problems and matters of mutual interest is not an inconsiderable advantage of close geographical association.” (Estall and Buchanan 1961: 109)

31. Why do Firms Cluster? • 4. Knowledge Spillovers • Detroit: The motor city “…there was an explosion in automotive entrepreneurship in Detroit in 1900. Detroit seemed to have had a budding automotive genius on every street corner. Ford Ransom Olds, the Dodge brothers, David Dunbar Buick and the Fisher brothers all worked in the Motor City…..Ford was able to open a new company with backing from the Dodge brothers who were making engine and chasis components. They supplied Ford with both financing and parts.” Glaeser (2011)

32. Evidence of Localization Economies: Productivity & Births • Higher Labor Productivity • Henderson: Elasticity (output per worker, industry output) = 0.02 to 0.11 • Mun & Huchinson: Productivity elasticity = 0.27 • Firm Births • Carlton: Elasticity (births, industry output) = 0.43 • Head, Reis, Swenson: Japanese plants cluster • Rosenthal & Strange: births more numerous in locations close to industry concentrations

33. Evidence of Localization Economies: Employment Growth • Henderson, Kuncor, Turner: growth more rapid close to existing concentrations • Rosenthal & Strange: rapid growth close to locations with existing jobs • Localization economies attenuate rapidly with distance

34. Urbanization Economies • Cost savings from the clustering of firms from different industries. • These happen for the same reasons mentioned before.

35. Urbanization Economies and Knowledge Spillovers • Diverse city is fertile ground for new ideas • Bulk of patents issued to people in large cities • Evidence of Urbanization Economies • Elasticity of productivity w.r.t. population is 0.03 to 0.08 • Diversity promotes employment growth, especially in innovative industries

36. Specialized and Diverse Cities • Specialized (diverse) cities develop because of localization (urbanization) economies • Both cities are important for firms at different stages of product development • Young firms benefit from proximity to a diversity of economic activities. • Specialized cities attract mature firms • Both cities are important for different divisions within a firm. With improvements in communication • Headquarters are located in diverse cities • Production units locate in specialized cities

37. Corporate HQ and Functional Specialization • Corporate headquarters cluster in cities to share firms providing business services • Large cities increasingly specialized in managerial functions • Small cities increasingly specialized in production

38. Other Benefits of Urban Size • Joint Labor Supply • Large cities offer better job opportunities for two-earner families • History: metal-processing firms (men) located close to textile mills (women) • Current: power couples attracted to cities, with better employment matches • Learning Opportunities • Human capital increased by learning through imitation • The skill and experience acquired in large cities results in a permanent increase in wage • Social Opportunities: Better matches of social interest in large city

39. Assignment • Discussion question: Check the list of ten dead U.S. cities. Which of these are specialized cities? What does this imply about the costs or benefits of specialized cities?