Actual Gender Differences There are a number of documented gender differences

1. Actual Gender Differences • There are a number of documented gender differences • Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity

2. But: • Relatively few documented differences • Gender stereotypes suggest more differences than are actually documented by research • Even documented differences are relatively small in size • Average performance of males and females is not extremely different

3. Gender Typing • Process by which a child: • Becomes aware of his or her gender • Acquires information about the characteristics and behavior viewed as appropriate for males or females (gender stereotypes) • Acquires the characteristics and behaviors viewed as appropriate for either males or females (gender roles)

4. Developmental Trends in Gender Typing • By 2.5 to 3 years, children label their own sex and that of other people • Do not yet understand that sex is a permanent characteristic

5. Development of Gender Stereotypes • By 2.5 years, children have some knowledge of gender stereotypes • Over the preschool/early school years, learn more about toys, activities, and achievement domains considered appropriate for boys versus girls • Ex (achievement): boys are good at math; girls are good at English

6. By late elementary school, children know gender stereotypes associated with psychological characteristics (personality traits) • Ex: males are assertive, aggressive, ambitious; females are emotional, nurturing, dependent

7. Preschoolers’ gender stereotypes tend to be rigid • Don’t usually realize that characteristics associated with sex (e.g., activities, clothing) don’t determine whether one is male or female • May be one reason they treat gender stereotypes as “rules” rather than as beliefs

8. By elementary school, children’s gender stereotypes are more flexible • Understand that stereotypes are beliefs, not “rules” • But older children do not necessarily approve of “cross-gender” behavior

9. Development of Gender Role Behavior • Gender-stereotyped toy preferences are present by 14 months and continue to develop through the preschool years

10. Gender segregation develops by ages 2 to 3 years • Tendency to associate with same-sex playmates • Typically lasts until around the onset of puberty

11. Gender Intensification: A magnification of sex differences early in adolescence • Associated with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles (from parents, peers) • Gender intensification declines over the course of adolescence

12. Biological Influences on Gender Typing (Hormonal Influences) • Experimental animal studies indicate that exposure to androgens (male sex hormones): • Increases active play in male and female mammals • Promotes male-typical sexual behavior and aggression and suppresses maternal caregiving behavior in a wide variety of species

13. Humans: • Cannot do experimental research for ethical reasons • Correlational research

14. In boys, naturally occurring variations in androgen levels are positively correlated with • Amount of rough-and-tumble play • Levels of physical aggression

15. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) • Disorder in which child is exposed to high levels of androgens from the prenatal period onward • Compared to girls without CAH, girls with CAH show • Higher activity levels • Greater interest in “male-typical” toys, activities, and occupations • Better spatial/mathematical abilities

16. Environmental Influences on Gender Typing • Social Learning Theory • Gender typing results from • Observational learning • By watching male and female “models”, children learn “appropriate” appearance, activities/occupations, and behavior for each sex • Rewards and punishments associated with gender-typed behavior • Rewards for conforming to appropriate gender role and lack of rewards and/or punishment for failure to conform

17. Parental Behavior • On average, data suggest that differences in parental treatment of boys and girls are not large • Does not mean that parental behavior is unimportant because: • Younger children receive more direct “training” from parents about gender roles than do older children • Parents vary in the extent to which they practice differential treatment

18. Evidence for Differential Treatment • Some data indicate that parents • Provide gender-stereotyped toys (e.g., vehicles, dolls) • Are more responsive when children engage in “gender-appropriate” play • But data are not always consistent across studies • Parents also provide gender-neutral toys for children

19. Gender-stereotyped toys may encourage different behaviors, characteristics, or abilities in males and females • Parents give toys that encourage action and competition to boys (e.g., toy weapons, toy vehicles, construction toys and tools, sports equipment) • Parents give toys that encourage nurturance, cooperation, and physical attractiveness to girls (e.g., dolls/stuffed animals, toy dishes, jewelry, jump ropes)

20. Other evidence indicates that parents encourage different behaviors in boys and girls • More likely to encourage independence in boys • Respond more positively when boys demand attention, are highly active, or try to take toys from others • More likely to • Refuse or ignore a son’s request for help • Challenge boys in teaching situations (e.g., offer scientific explanations, ask high-level questions) • Assign household chores that are outside the house (e.g., yard work, taking out the trash)

21. More likely to encourage closeness and dependence in girls • More likely to: • Direct play activities • Provide help • Engage in conversations • Talk about emotions • Assign chores inside the house

22. Differential treatment of boys and girls may be relatively subtle • Data indicate gender differences in parent-child communication

23. Parents more likely to offer scientific explanations to sons than to daughters (at a museum) • Ex: “When you turn that fast, it makes more electricity” versus “Turn that handle” • Mothers more likely to give boys greater freedom (autonomy) to make decisions • Ex: “When do you think would be a good time for you to do your music practice?” versus “Do your practicing right after dinner”

24. Parental Beliefs • Parental beliefs are likely to influence parental behavior toward children • Ex: On average, parents rate sons as more competent in math/science than daughters even when there is no difference in performance

25. Parents’ beliefs about their children’s abilities in specific areas/subjects are related to children’s • Self-perceptions of their abilities in those subjects • Effort in those subjects • Later performance in those subjects

26. Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) • Three Stages: • Basic Gender Identity: • Recognition that one is a boy or a girl • Emerges between 2.5 and 3 years

27. Gender Stability • Understanding that gender is stable over time • Emerges between 3 and 5 years

28. Gender Constancy/Consistency • Understanding that gender is constant/consistent across situations regardless of appearance or activities • Emerges between 5 and 7 years

29. Kohlberg: Gender constancy leads to gender typing • Why is this incorrect? • Gender typing begins before children have achieved gender constancy

30. Gender Schema Theory: • Children construct gender schemas • Organized mental representations incorporating information about gender • Include children’s own experiences and information conveyed by others, including gender stereotypes • Schemas are dynamic—change as children acquire additional information

31. Once children achieve basic gender identity, they are motivated to acquire gender-typed behavior and characteristics • Young children start with a simple “in-group/out-group” gender schema • Motivated to prefer, pay attention to, and remember more about others of their own sex • Form an “own-sex” schema—detailed knowledge about their own gender

33. Evidence: Gender Schema Theory • Children used gender labels given to toys to guide their behavior • Gender-neutral, unfamiliar toys/objects labelled as “for girls” or “for boys” • Children prefer the toys/objects consistent with their gender

34. Children show biases in their memory for information about gender • More likely to accurately remember information that is consistent with gender stereotypes • More likely to forget or distort information that is inconsistent with gender stereotypes