Research In Handwriting And Implications For The Montessori Classroom (Handout Slides, March 2012)

1. Research In Handwriting And Implications For The Montessori Classroom(Handout Slides, March 2012) Jennifer O’Brien, M. Ed.

2. Overview Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

3. Overview What will be covered: What won’t be covered: • Defining handwriting • Historical context • Highlights of research from 1970s to early 1990s • Most relevant findings from 1994-2010 • Direct connections to Montessori • Practical implications and sharing of ideas • Technology • Detailed review of handwriting programs • Explicit handwriting curriculum Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

4. Issue of Technology • Yes – there is a lot of technology that is reducing our need as adults to handwrite; however… • Similar issue with calculators and learning math • Similar issue with CAD and architectural drawings • Montessorians understand the connection between the hand and the mind! “Reports of my death have been greatly exaggerated.” - Mark Twain Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

5. Defining Handwriting • “Handwriting” is used to mean the physical act of encoding a sound in a meaningful, symbolic form. • It is the combination of physical and mental functions. • The writer must mentally connect the sound with the symbol and then initiate a motor program. • Issues with terminology • Handwriting/writing • Speech/language Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

6. Defining Handwriting • Need to recognize the fundamental difference between spoken and written language, especially when considering the developing child. • Children are “wired” for spoken language acquisition, but there is not the same biological drive for written language acquisition. “For although [spoken] language is an instinct, written language is not… Writing was invented a small number of times in history, and alphabetic writing, where one character corresponds to one sound, seems to have been invented only once… Children must be taught to read and write in laborious lessons.” - Steven Pinker, 1994 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

7. History and Context • Of the “Three Rs,” only handwriting has ever been on the chopping block. • In America, “writing pedagogy has been a battle ground” even from colonial times. (Emblidge, 2007) • Handwriting – and teaching handwriting - in America can be seen as a competition between individuality and conformity. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

8. History and Context • During the Victorian period, handwriting was of great interest to many in the new fields of psychology and graphology and to people who thought social control was important. “Educators now called for bodies to be disciplined, nowhere more so than in handwriting instruction. Thus educators claimed that the penmanship regimen, in asserting control over the ‘student body,’ would yield important social benefits. It would reform delinquents, assimilate foreigners, and shape a workforce.” - Tamara Thornton, 1996 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

9. History and Context • Victorian period was the rise of the Palmer method and handwriting as a business. • But also start of real research into handwriting based on evolution and psychology. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

10. History and Context • But times changed. “By the 1960s, and certainly with the rise of the anti-establishment counter culture in the late ‘60s and 1970s, as social permissiveness increased, the teaching of writing as a disciplined, standardized skill declined rapidly. Now, content triumphed over form as people, even little people in third grade, did their own things with whatever writing implements they could find.” - David Emblidge, 2007 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

11. History and Context • During the 1980s and early 1990s, with the popularity of whole language and process writing, research into “handwriting instruction became less fashionable.” (Graham and Weintraub, 1996) • So where are we now? • While there is more balance now, handwriting research and instruction can still be seen as a reflection of our social norms, and thus potentially open to bias. • The issue of manuscript and cursive is a prime example… Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

12. A Look at the Research Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

13. Research: Progress in the 1970s • A 1980 review of the research found that “though some progress had been made, handwriting in general did not appear to have been thoroughly researched.” • The research of this period focused mostly on the act of handwriting itself and on finding the best way to teach handwriting. • Issue of handwriting still isolated from literacy as a whole, even though there was starting to be some evidence of handwriting’s “relationship to the development of the other language arts.” • Cursive vs. manuscript: “no studies directed toward this question during the past decade.” (all quotes from Peck, Askov, and Fairchild, 1980) Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

14. Research: Progress in the 1970s Instruction in the 1900s Instruction in the 1970s “In fact, handwriting instruction seemed to be based primarily on accepted practices rather than on research findings.” - Peck, Askov, and Fairchild, 1980 “Tradition has dominated the teaching of handwriting as it has no other school of study.” - Freeman, 1914 (in Thornton, 1996) Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

15. Research: Progress in the 1980s • Main review of the research used the same categories as the 1970s review but added • Use of mental models in forming letters during instruction • Handwriting instruction for special-needs populations • There also were studies looking at handwriting as a means to evaluate children at risk for future difficulties. • Technology was starting to expand, some people already saying that handwriting could become obsolete. “Maybe interest in handwriting remains a focus for research because it is usually one of a child’s first encounters with literacy.” - Dobbie and Askov, 1995 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

16. Research: Progress in the 1980s • Status of cursive and manuscript: • Some research focused on comparing handwriting styles • Some studies on the transition from manuscript to cursive, but the robustness of such studies was still in question. • The “myriad of opinions indicates more research needs to be done in this particular area.” (Dobbie and Askov, 1995) Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

17. Research: 1980s to 1994 • Graham and Weintraub published a major literature review in 1996 covering 1980 to 1994. • Their review categorized studies differently than the previous reviews. • They also noted “considerable progress” in research methods and findings and in the volume of research as handwriting was seen as related to motor behavior and to cognitive processes. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

18. Research: Main Points 1980-1994 The most relevant points brought up by Graham and Weintraub include: • Some studies started to look at pre-school aged children. • Bad habits are hard to break! Graham and Weintraub concluded from the different findings that “any ineffective or inefficient letter formation habits learned at home, kindergarten, or preschool may be difficult to change.” Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

19. Research: Main Points 1980-1994 • Periodic review of handwriting could benefit older children even after “formal instruction” has ended. • Soapbox alert: Please do handwriting in Upper Elementary! • Starting to see the correlation between fluent handwriting and achievement in other areas. • Highlighted the need to better understand the “effects of poor handwriting skills on children’s self-efficacy and attitudes toward writing.” Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

20. Research: Main Points 1980-1994 • They noted that research in letter forms was more on comparing different forms of manuscript rather than on cursive vs. manuscript – but none of the studies were methodologically sound. • Researchers did not control for differences in teaching methodologies. • Students and teachers were not randomly assigned. “Regardless of the script taught, children will inevitably develop their own style…Teachers who insist on strict adherence to a particular model, therefore, are likely to frustrate not only their students but themselves as well.” - Graham and Weintraub, 1996 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

21. Research: Main Points 1980-1994 • Research into handwriting instruction was put in 10 categories. The most relevant findings were: • Most teachers reported having no formal training in handwriting instruction. • The claims of whole language advocates had not been researched. “Empirical investigations comparing traditional, incidental, and whole language handwriting instruction are sorely needed.” • Visual and verbal modeling of letter formation for children was beneficial. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

22. Current Findings 1994-2010 • The field of handwriting-related research has expanded greatly. • It is no longer possible to have a single, overarching review of the research. • For this discussion, these three areas will be the focus: • Handwriting’s relationship to literacy and academic performance • Issues of instruction • History, current research and opinion in the manuscript vs. cursive debate Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

23. Current Findings 1994-2010 • Points to keep in mind: • Issues of technology not being addressed. The current research demonstrates that instruction in handwriting and spelling is important for children to fully develop their compositional and communication skills. • Little of the writing research has involved kindergarten or younger students. But this has started to change. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

24. Link to General Literacy • Two recent articles: • “Want to Improve Children’s Writing? Don’t Neglect Their Handwriting” (Graham, 2009) • “Creating Better Readers and Writers: The Importance of Direct, Systematic Spelling and Handwriting Instruction in Improving Academic Performance” (Gentry & Graham, 2010) Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

25. Link to General Literacy “An extensive and evolving body of research shows that direct and explicit spelling and handwriting instruction is required if all students are to master the mechanics of reading and writing – which is not only a requirement of federal and state legislation, but also a critical goal for a nation whose economy has transitioned from a manufacturing to a knowledge base. As these skills become automatic, students are freer to concentrate on the higher-level thinking and communications skills needed for success in school and life.” - Gentry and Graham, 2010 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

26. Link to General Literacy • Fluent handwriting has been linked to: • Higher scores given to papers with better handwriting, even with same content. • General academic achievement because of development of related mental processes. • But “good” handwriting has not been linked to intelligence! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

27. Link to General Literacy • Handwriting and Reading “Reading is at the heart of education, the basic skill upon which all others are built. Learning to read and write provides the foundation for both academic and economic success.” - Gentry and Graham 2010 • The teaching of reading and writing has traditionally been separated in the U.S. • Common assumption was that children should read before they begin to write • But the research has shown that reading and writing should be taught together! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

28. Link to General Literacy • Handwriting and Spelling • Handwriting and spelling are the two low level transcription skills necessary for writing – meaning text generation. “Despite the relatively young age of students in kindergarten, being able to write letters automatically and legibly has implications for children’s future writing proficiency. Spelling and text production in later grades will require that students can automatically and legibly write alphabet letters and match sounds in words to associated spelling patterns.” - Kristen Ritchey, 2008 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

29. Link to General Literacy • Automaticity is key! “Certainly anyone who observes children writing is struck by the effort that transcription requires, effort distributed across both handwriting and spelling processes.” - Deborah McCutchen, 1996 “Of all the knowledge and skills that are required to write, handwriting is the one that places the earliest constraints on writing development.” - Steven Graham, 2009 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

30. Link to General Literacy • How does automaticity develop? • There are individual differences in children (nature). • But instruction (nurture) is important. • Fine motor skills are most important for youngest children. • Issues of working memory (capacity theory of writing) more relevant as children get older and start producing text. “Transcription and text generation processes that are extremely resource-demanding early in writing acquisition may have consequences across the entire range of development of writing skill, because they affect the nature of developing planning and revision processes.” - Deborah McCutchen, 1996 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

31. Findings on Instruction • If automaticity is so crucial, what is the best way to help children develop this skill? DIRECT INSTRUCTION • Direct instruction as opposed to “accidental” or “incidental” instruction. • But the instruction of today does not need to be like in the past – and it should be part of a balanced program. Handwriting can be fun! • Researching instruction is a difficult process! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

32. Cursive vs. Manuscript • Manuscript brought to the U.S. in the 1920s by British handwriting expert Marjorie Wise. • From the start, the embrace of manuscript over cursive by the British and American schools was based on beliefs and assumptions, not on research-based evidence. • Assumed easier to learn • Assumed it would help with reading and spelling Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

33. Cursive vs. Manuscript • There has been research supporting the benefits of learning cursive. • But the predominance of manuscript has effected handwriting instruction and research profoundly. • Considerable attention spent on trying to determine the best time to transition from manuscript to cursive. • Research time spent on trying to compare different forms of manuscript (but no good studies!). • Instruction has been dominated by tradition. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

34. Current Research and Montessori Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

35. Montessori and Handwriting • As Montessorians, we are very attuned to the relationship between the hand and the mind – and the centrality of that relationship in Montessori practice. • Montessori herself saw the issues with the way handwriting was being taught in her own time – which was the same time that the Palmer Method was rising in the United States! “The efforts which we thought were necessary to learn how to write are completely artificial since they are connected not with writing but with the methods used in teaching it.” - Maria Montessori, 1948 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

36. Montessori and Handwriting • Montessori had to overcome the biases of her own tradition. • She saw the flaws in the methods of Séguin, her much admired teacher. • She also originally agreed with the thought that writing should be delayed as long as possible, certainly not to start before the age of 6! • But through observation and a scientific mind, she found a better way – the Sensitive Periods being key. • Better to start young when the hand is not yet fixed. • Understood the overlapping of reading and writing. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

37. Link to General Literacy • As Montessori teachers, we regularly see the general academic confidence that our children display. • The “explosions” into writing and reading are a great example. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

38. Link Between Reading and Handwriting “With this method, the teaching of reading is begun simultaneously with that of writing…The simultaneity of teaching, or better, the fusion of these two initial actions, thus present a child with a new form of language, without determining which of the two constituent acts should prevail.” - Maria Montessori, 1948 • And she was saying this at a time when in the U.S. researchers saw reading and writing as completely separate acts! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

39. Transcription – Handwriting and Spelling • Montessori was working first with the highly phonetic Italian language. However, she did get to see her method in action with non-phonetic languages. She did note the benefits, but there is not much in her writings on this subject. • Montessori saw writing in her method as developing “spontaneously in the same way as speech.” (1948) • Does this match Pinker’s ideas? • Is this our experience today? Is it “simple”? • We are starting younger and developing motor skills, but what is the effect of “bad habits” formed at home? Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

40. Developing Automaticity • So much of the research has been done on older students who need to be producing text. • For Montessori, and today’s 3-6 teachers, the focus is on the youngest students who are developing foundational skills. • The Moveable Alphabet is a great example of her understanding of how children develop. “I believe that writing entails numerous difficulties at the beginning, not simply because it has hitherto been taught irrationally, but because we have tried to make it carry out, even though it has been recently acquired, the lofty function of teaching the written language that has been fixed and perfected through the efforts of centuries.” - Maria Montessori, 1948 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

41. Direct Instruction • Montessori stressed exercises in direct preparation for handwriting. • Metal Insets for holding the writing instrument • Sandpaper Letters for drawing of the letters • BUT this comes after extensive indirect preparation ! “Our children have long been preparing the hand for writing. Throughout all the sensory exercises the hand, whilst cooperating with the mind in its attainments and in its work of formation, was preparing its own future. • Maria Montessori, 1948 • Were the children of her time doing any writing BEFORE starting school? Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

42. Direct Instruction • There is not much in the Montessori literature about handwriting and handwriting instruction. • Montessorian Carol Woods in Cincinnati developed a multisensory program in the 1990s that stressed the need for direct instruction. “The program is based on the idea that children benefit from direct teaching and guided practice in learning to form letters efficiently, and that tracing alone is not sufficient to develop legible handwriting… When left alone, children are masterful at finding unique but inefficient ways of duplicating letters.” - Carol Woods, 2001 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

43. Whole Language • Montessori classrooms are whole language classrooms. • Children are surrounded and immersed in language. • BUT the transcription skills of handwriting and spelling are not incidental or accidental! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

44. Handwriting Style • Montessori taught cursive - the prevailing hand of her time. • Montessori did respond to the issue of teaching manuscript as the first hand. She again faulted Séguin. “[H]e taught geometry in order to teach writing and forced a child’s mind to attempt to understand geometrical abstractions to free him from the much simpler effort required to draw a printed “D.” But further, will not a child have to make an effort to forget printed, in order to learn cursive letters? And would it not be simpler to begin with the latter?” - Maria Montessori, 1948 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

45. Handwriting Style • Montessori also noted no difficulty for children in learning to read. “While we were preparing material to teach the Roman alphabet to the children so that we could make another attempt with the books, the children began to read all the print that they found in the school. And there were some things that were really difficult to decipher, such a as a calendar on which the words were printed in Gothic type. During this same time the children’s parents came to say that they stopped in the street to read the signs of the shops and it was impossible to go for a walk with them. -Maria Montessori, 1936 Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

46. Handwriting Style • But this wasn’t an issue she was going to rock the boat over. “The character of [the moveable alphabet] is determined by the style of writing in common use. We do not aim at making a reform in the manner of writing. This would be completely foreign to our goal. We only wish to facilitate writing, no matter what kind it may be.” • Maria Montessori, 1948 • The means of instruction is the key! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

47. Concluding Thoughts • Current research findings are consistent with Montessori theory and practice. • The issue of the age of instruction and the best means of preparation– particularly when children have so many “opportunities” for writing outside of school – could be researched more fully. • The resolution of cursive vs. manuscript (and the different kinds of manuscript!) needs to be a school decision that weighs the various issues involved. Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

48. Application and Discussion Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

49. Getting practical! • What do the Montessori elementary teachers expect? • Lack of controls for handwriting! • “Bad habits” from outside – and inside - the classroom • Sow how can we monitor? • What does a lesson look like? • Short! • Multisensory! • Fun! • Can we really spend that much time with each student? • Programs and packages – some good ideas, but watch out for fit with Montessori! • Handwriting Without Tears • Wilson Fundations • Your experience! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012

50. Contact Information • Jennifer O’Brien, M.Ed. • Cambridge Montessori School • Cambridge, MA • jobrien@cambridgemontessori.org • Please send feedback and areas of interest for follow-up presentation on specific applications in the classroom! Jennifer O'Brien, AMS Conference 2012