PSY 321 Research Methods in Social Psychology Dr. Sanchez

1. 1 PSY 321Research Methods in Social Psychology Dr. Sanchez

2. 2 Today�s Plan Developing Ideas Refining Ideas Testing Ideas

3. 3 Developing Ideas

4. 4 Beginning the Research Process Step #1: Start asking questions. Step #2: Search the literature. Step #3: Begin shaping the idea into a hypothesis: An explicit, testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur

5. 5 Theories An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena. Usually evaluated in terms of three criteria: Simplicity Comprehensiveness. Generativity

6. 6 Basic and Applied Research Basic research: Designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific theory. Applied research: Designed to find solutions to practical problems.

7. 7 Refining Ideas Defining and Measuring Social Psychological Variables

8. 8 Conceptual & Operational Definitions empirical realization conceptual variable � abstract level operational variable � the way you measure the conceptual variable

9. 9 Effects of Guilt (Regan, Williams, & Sparling, 1972) people who feel guilty are more likely to help others than people who do not feel guilty description of study Ps were asked to take a paid actor�s (i.e., a confederate) picture in mall Operationalization of guilt � Ps were induced to believe that they had broken his very expensive camera � Ps were informed that the camera malfunctioned all of the time; they were not responsible

10. 10 Construct Validity Used to evaluate the manipulation and measurement of variables. Refers to the extent to which: Experiments really manipulate conceptual variables The measures really measure the conceptual variables

11. 11 Measuring Variables: Self-Reports Participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions. Problems with self-reports

12. 12 How Many Hours of TV Do You Watch?(Schwarz et al. 1985)

13. 13 EXPERIENCE SAMPLING Interval contingent Participants are asked to report �state� feelings at regular intervals. Signal contingent Participants are asked to report �state� feelings upon signal. Event contingent Participants are asked to report �state� feelings in certain situations

14. 14 Testing Ideas Research Designs

15. 15 Descriptive Research Goal is to describe people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Observational studies Archival studies Surveys Random sampling

16. 16 Most Common Methods We�ll focus on two other methods: Correlational designs Experimental designs

17. 17 Correlational Designs Represents the strength of the relationship between two variables Concurrent v. Prospective Correlation coefficient (�r�) ranges from +1 to -1

18. 18 Interpreting Correlations Positive correlation increase in exposure associated with increase in aggression Negative correlation increase in exposure associated with decrease in aggression No correlation Variables are not related

19. 19 Correlations: Positive, Negative, and None

20. 20

21. 21 Why can�t we infer causality? Reverse-Causality Problem X ? Y or Y ? X

22. 22 Why can�t we infer causality? Reverse-Causality Problem X ? Y or Y ? X Third-variable problem A ? X and A ? Y e.g., ice cream sales (X) and violence (Y) (r = +.29) What is A in these cases? What is the third variable that can explain this relationship? VERY IMPORTANT FOR INTERPRETING NEWS ABOUT HEALTH RESEARCH!!!

23. 23 NEW YORK TIMES ARTICLECoffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some Benefits �Researchers have found strong evidence that coffee reduces the risk of several serious ailments, including diabetes, heart disease and cirrhosis of the liver.� �Still, after controlling for age, smoking and alcohol consumption, women who drank one to five cups a day � caffeinated or decaffeinated � reduced their risk of death from all causes during the study by 15 to 19 percent compared with those who drank none.�

24. 24 Explaining Correlations: Three Possibilities

25. 25 Advantages of Correlational Methods Allow assessment of behavior as it occurs in people�s everyday lives Allow study of variables that cannot be studied in experimental designs Establishes that a relationships between 2 variables exists One very serious disadvantage

26. 26 Experiments Cause-and-effect relationships. Two essential characteristics: Researcher has control Random Assignment

27. 27 Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment Random Sampling Selecting Ps to be in study so that everyone in population has an equal chance of being in the study. Representative samples ? Generalization Random Assignment Assigning Ps (who are already in study) to the different conditions so that each P as equal chance of being in any of the conditions. Equalizes the conditions of experiment so that it is unlikely that conditions differ because of pre-existing differences Required for inferences of causality.

28. 28 Variables Independent Variable variable that we expect causes an outcome variable that the experimenter can control and manipulate Dependent Variable the variables measured to see if they are affected by IV it�s value depends on the changes introduced by the IV

29. 29 IVs and Conditions Must have at least two conditions (also called �levels�) of the IV in order to demonstrate that the IV has an effect on the DV Experimental group (IV present) vs. control group (IV not present)

30. 30 Laboratory Experiments Conducted in settings in which: The environment can be controlled. The participants can be carefully studied.

31. 31 Field Experiments Conducted in real-world settings. Advantages and Disadvantages

32. 32 Some exercises

33. 33 Crusco & Wetzel (1984) interested in how touching influences individuals� perceptions of others description of study waitress performed normal duties when she gave change to customer, she approached the paying customer from the side, leaned forward, and w/out making eye contact, said in a friendly yet firm tone, �Here�s your change.� 1/3 � no touch control condition 1/3 � a brief hand-touch condition 1/3 � a longer shoulder-touch condition left a blank survey for customers to complete collected survey and tip

34. 34

35. 35

36. 36 Researchers are interested in influences on self-esteem. Specifically, researchers want to assess how performing a difficult task under pressure influences college students� self-esteem. Ps are given a set of anagrams to solve. Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, and half are given difficult ones. Crossed with this, half are randomly assigned to be given 10 minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are given 30 minutes to complete the task. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, Ps are given a Q�aire labeled �Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire� that is really a measure of self-esteem.

37. 37 Main Effects and Interactions Main Effect: The overall effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, ignoring all other independent variables. Interaction: How the effect of each independent variable is different as a function of other independent variables.

38. 38 Female Infidelity, Male Honor, and Culture: The Conditions Hypothesis: cultural difference s in social perceptions of husbands whose wives are cheating on them. IV: Wife is faithful or not faithful SUBJECT VARIABLE Participants were from US or Brazil (SUBJECT VARIABLES�pre-existing differences that cannot be manipulated) READ A STORY ABOUT WIFE�s BEHAVIOR DV: Ratings of Manliness Is this a TRUE EXPERIMENT????Hypothesis: cultural difference s in social perceptions of husbands whose wives are cheating on them. IV: Wife is faithful or not faithful SUBJECT VARIABLE Participants were from US or Brazil (SUBJECT VARIABLES�pre-existing differences that cannot be manipulated) READ A STORY ABOUT WIFE�s BEHAVIOR DV: Ratings of Manliness Is this a TRUE EXPERIMENT????

39. 39 Female Infidelity, Male Honor, and Culture: The Results(How �manly?�) MAIN EFFECTS, INTERACTIONSMAIN EFFECTS, INTERACTIONS

40. 40 Statistical Significance How likely is it that the results could have occurred by chance? If 5 or fewer times in 100 possible outcomes, then considered to be �statistically significant.�

41. 41 Internal Validity How reasonably certain is it that the IV caused the effects obtained on the DV? Control groups Minimize experimenter expectancy effects.

42. 42 External Validity To what degree can the findings be generalized to other people and to other situations? External validity considerations

43. 43 Mundane vs. Experimental Realism Mundane Realism: The extent to which the research setting resembles the real-world setting of interest. Experimental Realism: The degree to which the experimental setting and procedures are real and involving to the participant.

44. 44 Meta-Analysis A set of statistical procedures for examining relevant research that has already been conducted and reviewed. Allows one to combine the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.

45. 45 Ethics and Values in Social Psychology Researchers have a moral and legal responsibility to abide by ethical principles. Cost/Benefits Ratio The use of deception has caused particular concern in social psychology. Debriefing Virtually every study now has to be evaluated for its ethics by other people before the study can be conducted. IRB