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VALUE CHAINS. CHAPTER 2. DAVID A. COLLIER AND JAMES R. EVANS. LO1 Explain the concept of value and how it can be increased. LO2 Describe a value chain and the two major perspectives that characterize it . LO3 Explain outsourcing and vertical integration in value chains .
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VALUE CHAINS CHAPTER 2 DAVID A. COLLIER AND JAMES R. EVANS
LO1Explain the concept of value and how it can be increased. LO2Describe a value chain and the two majorperspectives that characterize it. LO3Explain outsourcing and vertical integration in value chains. LO4Explain offshoring and issues that managers must consider in offshoring decisions. LO5Identify important issues associated with value chains in a global business environment. LO6Describe how sustainability plays an important role in value chains.
Apple has mastered the art of blending physical goods with services to create value for its customers. Think iPod + iTunes, iPhone + apps, iPad +videos; well, you get the picture. Apple was recognized as having "an intoxicating mix of brilliant industrial design, transcendent software interfaces and consumable goods that are purely digital… The mechanical and financial benefits of this approach include extremely high inventory turns, minimal material or capacity limitations to growth, and excellent margins.” When Apple introduced the 3G iPhone in July of 2008, there were plenty of phones available in Apple stores. In just three days, Apple sold 1 million iPhones.
The processes by which the physical goods are produced and delivered, called the supply chain—that is, purchasing raw materials, manufacturing the phones, and distributing them to retail outlets—worked marvelously. However, one part of the service side of Apple’s business did not work as smoothly. During those first few launch days, iTunes was not able to deal with the huge number of demands for phone activations that came from 21 different countries, overwhelming call center and server capacity, resulting in many frustrated customers.
What do youthink? Cite some other examples in which digital content has been combined with a physical good. How do you see the digital revolution changing the nature of physical goods in the future?
Value and Supply Chains • A value chain is a network of facilities and processes that describes the flow of goods, services, information, and financial transactions from suppliers through the facilities and processes that create goods and services and deliver them to customers. • A supply chainis the portion of the value chain that focuses primarily on the physical movement of goods and materials, and supporting flows of information and financial transactions through the supply, production, and distribution processes.
The Concept of Value • The underlying purpose of every organization is to provide value to its customer and stakeholders. • Valueis the perception of the benefits associated with a good, service, or bundle of goods and services (i.e., the customer benefit package) in relation to what buyers are willing to pay for them.
Perceived benefits Value = Price (cost) to the customer If the value ratio is high, the good or service is perceived favorably by customers, and the organization providing it is more likely to be successful. To increase value, an organization must: (a) increase perceived benefits while holding price or cost constant, (b) increase perceived benefits while reducing price or cost, or (c) decrease price or cost while holding perceived benefits constant.
Value Chain Paradigms and Perspectives • Input-Output Model: A value chain begins with suppliers who provide inputs that are transformed into value-added goods and services through processes that are supported by resources such as equipment and facilities, labor, money, and information. These goods and services are delivered or provided to customers and targeted market segments.
Exhibit 2.2 Examples of Goods-Producing and Service-Providing Value Chains
Buhrke Industries, Inc. Value Chain • Buhrke Industries Inc., located in Arlington Heights, Illinois, provides stamped metal parts to many industries, including automotive, appliance, computer, electronics, hardware, house wares, power tools, medical, and telecommunications. • Buhrke’s objective is to be a customer’s best total-value producer with on-time delivery, fewer rejects, and high-quality stampings. However, the company goes beyond manufacturing goods; it prides itself in providing the best service available as part of its customer value chain.
Exhibit 2.3 The Value Chain at Buhrke Industries Source:Buhrke Industries company web site
Buhrke Industries, Inc. Value Chain • Service is more than delivering a product on-time. It’s also partnering with customers by providing personalized service for fast, accurate response; customized engineering designs to meet customer needs; preventive maintenance systems to ensure high machine uptime; experienced, highly trained, long-term employees; and troubleshooting by a knowledgeable sales staff.
Value Chain Paradigms and Perspectives • Pre- and Postproduction Services Perspective: Pre- and postproduction services complete the ownership cycle for the good or service. Pre-production services are focused on “gaining a customer.” Postproduction services focus on “keeping the customer.” This view of the value chain emphasizes the notion that service is a critical component of traditional manufacturing processes.
Nestle—A Service View of a Business • Nestle defines its business initially from a physical goods viewpoint; later from a service perspective. • The results were greatly increased Nestle coffee sales, new revenue opportunities, and much stronger profits. • Nestle’s service vision of their business required a completely new service and logistical value chain capability.
Value and Supply Chains • A supply chain is the portion of the value chain that focuses primarily on the physical movement of goods and materials, and supporting flows of information and financial transactions through the supply, production, and distribution processes. • Many organizations use the terms “value chain” and “supply chain” interchangeably; however, we differentiate these two terms in this book.
Value and Supply Chains • A value chain is broader in scope than a supply chain, and encompasses all pre- and postproduction services (see Exhibit 2.3) to create and deliver the entire customer benefit package. • A value chain views an organization from the customer’s perspective—the integration of goods and services to create value—while a supply chain is more internally-focused on the creation of physical goods.
Value Chain Decisions Theoperational structureof a value chain is the configuration of resources such as suppliers, factories, warehouses, distributors, technical support centers, engineering design and sales offices, and communication links. Value chains may be centralized or decentralized.
Outsourcing and Vertical Integration • Vertical integrationrefers to the process of acquiring and consolidating elements of a value chain to achieve more control. • Backward integration refers to acquiring capabilities toward suppliers, while forward integration refers to acquiring capabilities toward distribution or even customers. • Outsourcing is the process of having suppliers provide goods and services that were previously provided internally.
Three Waves of Outsourcing Outsourcing goods-producing jobs, such as computer components and electronics from the U.S. in many industries several decades ago. Outsourcing simple service work, such as standard credit card processing, billing and other forms of transaction processing, and software development. Outsourcing skilled knowledge work, such as engineering design, architectural plans, call centers, and computer chip design.
The Economics of Outsourcing VC1 = Variable cost/unit if produced VC2 = Variable cost/unit if outsourced FC = Fixed costs associated with producing the part Q = Quantity produced (volume) Total cost of production = (VC1)Q + FC Total cost of outsourcing = (VC2) Q Find the breakeven point: (VC2)Q = (VC1)Q + FC FC Q* = [2.1] VC2 − VC1
Solved Problem—In-House versus Outsource Suppose that a manufacturer needs to produce a custom aluminum housing for a special customer order. Because it currently does not have the equipment necessary to make the housing, it would have to acquire machines and tooling at a fixed cost (net of salvage value after the project is completed) of $250,000. The variable cost of production is estimated to be $20 per unit. The company can outsource the housing to a metal fabricator at a cost of $35 per unit. The customer order is for 12,000 units. What should they do?
Solution VC1 = Variable cost/unit if produced = $20 VC2 = Variable cost/unit if outsourced = $35 FC = fixed costs associated with producing the part = $250,000 Q = quantity produced Using Equation 2.1 we obtain: Q = 250,000/($35 - $20) = 16,667 In this case, because the customer order is for only 12,000 units, which is less than the break-even point, the least cost decision is to outsource the component.
Value chain integration is the process of managing information, physical goods, and services to ensure their availability at the right place, at the right time, at the right cost, at the right quantity, and with the highest attention to quality.
Value chain integration in manufacturing • Consolidating information systems among suppliers, factories, distributors, and customers. • Managing the supply chain and scheduling factories. • Studying new ways to use technology. • Value chain integration in services • Third-party integrators for the leisure and travel industry (e.g., Orbitz, and Travelocity). • Information networks provided by third-party information technology integrators. • Third-party integrators that manage patient billing and hospital inventories.
Offshoring is the building, acquiring, or moving of process capabilities from a domestic location to another country location while maintaining ownership and control.
Exhibit 2.6 Things to Consider When Making Offshore Decisions
Value Chains in a Global Business Environment A multinational enterpriseis an organization that sources, markets, and produces its goods and services in several countries to minimize costs, and to maximize profit, customer satisfaction, and social welfare.
Challenges Facing Multinational Enterprises How to design a value chain to meet the slower growth of industrialized countries and more rapid growth of emerging economies. Where to locate manufacturing and distribution facilities around the globe to capitalize on value chain efficiencies and improve customer value. What performance metrics to use in making critical value chain decisions. How to decide if partnerships should be developed with competitors to share engineering, manufacturing, or distribution technology and knowledge.
Rocky Brands, Inc. • Rocky Brands (www.rockyboots.com) headquartered in Nelsonville, Ohio, manufactures rugged leather shoes for hiking and camping. • Rocky Brands began making boots in 1932 as the William Brooks Shoe Company with an average wage rate of 28 cents per hour. In the 1960s, Rocky Brands were 100% “Made in America.” In 1960, more than 95 percent of all shoes sold in America were made in America. • Timberland, Wolverine, and Rocky are popular brand names for this shoe market segment.
Rocky Brands, Inc. • The principal characteristics of this global value chain: • Leather is produced in Australia and then shipped to the Dominican Republic. • Outsoles are purchased in China and shipped to Puerto Rico. • Gor-Tex fabric waterproofing materials are made in the United States. • Shoe uppers are cut and stitched in the Dominican Republic, and then shipped to Puerto Rico. • Final shoe assembly is done at the Puerto Rico factory. • The finished boots are packed and shipped to the warehouse in Nelsonville, Ohio. • Customer orders are filled and shipped to individual stores and contract customers from Nelsonville.
Global Challenges • Profit margins are only about 2 percent on sales of over $100 million, while Timberland sales top $1 billion and have a 9 percent profit margin. • After seventy years in Nelsonville, the main factory closed in 2002. At that time, local labor costs were about $11 per hour without benefits, while in Puerto Rico the hourly rate was $6; in the Dominican Republic, $1.25; and in China, 40 cents. • The price of boots continues to decline globally from roughly $95 a pair to $85, and is heading toward $75. The grandson of the founder of Rocky Brands said, “We’ve got to get there, or we're not going to be able to compete.”
Issues for Managing Global Value Chains • Global value chains face higher levels of risk and uncertainty, requiring more inventory and day-to-day monitoring to prevent product shortages. Workforce disruptions, such as labor strikes and government turmoil in foreign countries, can create inventory shortages and disrupting surges in orders. • Transportation is more complex in global value chains. For example, tracing global shipments normally involves more than one mode of transportation and foreign company.
Issues for Managing Global Value Chains • The transportation infrastructure may vary considerably in foreign countries. The coast of China, for example, enjoys much better transportation, distribution, and retail infrastructures than the vast interior of the country. • Global purchasing can be a difficult process to manage when sources of supply, regional economies, and even governments change. Daily changes in international currencies necessitate careful planning and in the case of commodities, consideration of futures contracts.
Issues for Managing Global Value Chains • International purchasing can lead to disputes and legal challenges relating to such things as price fixing and quality defects. • To extend the firm’s value chain to other nations requires an understanding of national cultures and practices. • Privatizing companies and property is another form of major changes in global trade and regulatory issues. • The pre-planning, response, and recovery from natural or man-made disasters—often called Disaster or Emergency Management—is another important part of value chain management.
Sustainable Value Chains • The terms green operations, green manufacturing, and green practices are often used to describe sustainability activities that involve operations and the value chain. • Sustainability improves the organization’s perception among consumers, and improves the bottom line through reduced costs. • Sustainable practices can lead to increased revenues. For example, organizations that emit greenhouse gases like factories and electrical utilities may one day buy and sell carbon credits in a commodities-type stock market. • Many customers favor products and services that are designed and produced in a sustainable way.
Sustainable Value Chains • OM practices for environmental sustainability: • Designing goods and services using recyclable and environmentally-friendly materials. • Remanufacturing. • Designing facilities and using equipment that conserve energy. • Using electronic media and technology to reduce paper and fuel. • Using transportation modes that minimize costs and carbon output. • Cleaning and reusing water used for manufacturing.
Save a Tree—and Much More One issue of the Quadrangle—a University of Kentucky alumni College of Engineering magazine—noted that, “This issue was printed with vegetable ink on 12,125 pounds of paper made with 100% post consumer recycled fiber. The resulting environmental savings are: This paper publication was produced twice each year up until 2010, when it became a web-based publication only. • 41,954 lbs of wood—a total of 145 trees that supply enough oxygen for 73 people annually; • 53,050 gallons of water—enough water to take 3,084 eight-minute showers; • 101 million BTUs of energy—enough energy to power an average American household for 406 days; • 12,781 lbs of emissions—carbon sequestered by 153 tree seedlings grown for 10 years; • 6,812 lbs. of solid waste—a total of 235 thirty-two gallon garbage cans of waste.”
Bookmaster Case Study • Draw the “bricks and mortar” process stages by which hardcopy books are created, distributed, and sold in retail stores. How does each player in the value chain make money? • Draw the process stages for creating and downloading an eBook today. How does each player in this electronic/digital value chain make money? • Compare and contrast the value chain design and structure in the previous two questions from customer and management viewpoints. What are the advantages/disadvantages to each value chain design? • What is the role of operations in each of these value chain designs and structures? • What other criteria and issues are important in critiquing these two different value chain designs?
