Public Management Leaderships and Entrepreneurship Saturday, August 9, 2014

1. Public ManagementLeaderships and EntrepreneurshipSaturday, August 9, 2014 Hun Myoung Park, Ph.D. Public Management & Policy Analysis ProgramGraduate School of International Relations

2. Leaderships • Capacity of someone to direct and energize people to achieve goals. Bass (1997:17) states, • Focus of group processes, as a matter of personality, • Matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of influence, • Particular behaviors, as a form of persuasion, • Power relation, as an instrument to achieve goals, • Effect of interaction, as a differentiated role, • Initiation of structure, • Many combinations of these definitions • Leadership styles very among individuals, countries, and cultures

3. Management Roles/Skills • Allison (1983):Functions of General Management • Strategy: establishing objectives and priorities; devising operational plans • Managing internal components: organizing and staffing; directing personnel and the personnel management system; controlling performance • Managing external constituencies: dealing with external units subject to some common authority; with independent organizations; with the press and the public

4. Management Roles/Skills • Mintzberg (1972): Executive Roles

5. Management Roles/Skills • Whetton and Cameron (2002): Management skill topics • Self awareness • Managing personal stress • Creative problem solving • Managing conflict • Improving employee performance, motivating others • Effective delegation and joint decision making • Gaining power and influence • Establishing supportive communication • Improving group decision making

6. Management Roles/Skills • McCauley, Lombardo, and Usher (1989): Benchmarks Scales • Resourcefulness; doing whatever it takes; being a quick study • Building and mending relationships; leading subordinates; compassion and sensitivity • Straightforwardness and composure; setting a developmental climate; confronting problem subordinates team orientation; balance between personal life and work • Decisiveness; self-awareness; hiring talented staff; putting people at easy; acting with flexibility

7. Types of Leadership • Burns (1978) distinguished between two opposing types of leaders. • Transactional Leaders • Motivate followers by recognizing their needs and providing rewards in exchange for their performance and support. • Transformational Leaders • Rely on power but not in a controlling centralized way. • Raise followers goals to a higher plane, to a focus on transcendental, higher-level goals (self-actualization) • Have talent for coupling visions of success to empowerment and motivation

8. Types of Leadership • Areas of leadership behavior (Bass 1995, 1998) • Transformational • Idealized influence • Intellectual stimulation • Individual consideration • Inspirational motivation • Transactional leaders • Contingent rewards • Management by expectation • Active management by exception

9. Types of Leadership • Bennis and Nanus (1985) distinguished between • “leading” (guiding directions, actions or opinions to “do the right thing”) and • “managing” (accomplishing things efficiently or “doing things right.”

10. Types of Leadership • Excellent leaders lead others by carefully “managing themselves.” • Creating a vision of successful futures • Effectively communicating this vision to others by giving meaning to their work • Choosing the best course and sticking to it • Having a high regard for their own skills and utilizing then effectively • Concentrating on success and not become preoccupied with failure – Wallenda factor • Empowering others

11. Charismatic Leadership • Extension of work on transformational leadership • Charisma is treated as a matter of the characteristics that followers attribute to their leaders. • Two strains • The attribution theory of charismatic leadership • The self-concept theory of charismatic leadership

12. Charismatic Leadership • In attribution theory, followers are more likely to identify with leaders who: • Advocate a vision that is highly discrepant from status quo • Act in unconventional ways • Demonstrate self-sacrifices • Have confidence • Use persuasive appeals rather than authority or participative decision process • Use capacity to access context and locate opportunities

13. Charismatic Leadership • Self-Concept theory emphasizes observable characteristics of leaders and followers • Personal identification • Social identification and self-esteem • Internalization of leader’s beliefs

14. Sources of Power • Legitimate: procedural legitimacy • Reword: tangible and intangible rewards • Coercive: punishment and sanction • Expert: knowledge, skills, expertise • Referent power: subordinates’ respect, admiration, and loyalty

15. Leadership Theories & Studies • Trait theories • Ohio State leadership studies • The Blake and Moulton managerial grid • Fiedler’s theory of leadership • The Path-Goal theory of leadership • Vroom-Yetton normative model • Life Cycle theory • Attribuition models • Leader-Member Exchange theory • Operant Conditioning and Social Learning models • Cognitive Resource Utilization Theory

16. Trait Models of Leadership • Certain personality leadership traits constituting their leadership capacity. • Intelligence; knowledge and expertise; dominance; self-confidence; high energy; tolerance for stress; integrity and honesty; maturity • Attempts to isolate specific traits led to the conclusion that no single characteristicdistinguishes leaders from non-leaders. • What is the best? Does that always work?

17. OSU Behavior Theory • Developed questionnaires asking people to report on the behaviors of their supervisors • Findings indicated leaders fell into 2 categories • Consideration: leaders’ concern for the relationships with their subordinates • Initiating structure: leaders’ emphasis on setting standards, assigning roles, and pressing for productivity and performance • Criticisms • Measures questioned • Are 2 dimensions really enough for full picture?

18. Managerial Grid • Blake and Mouton (1984) • Concern for people and production • Authority-obedience management • Country club management • Impoverished management • Team management

19. Managerial Grid

20. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory • Examining relationship between leader style, organizational setting and effectiveness using preferred coworker scale. • Two types of leaders • High LPC: relationship-oriented • Low LPC: task-oriented • Three contingencies (situations) • Leader-member relations • Task structure • Position power of the leader

21. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory • High LPC leaders are relationship oriented. • Gave favorable ratings to LPC. • High LPC leaders perform best when the contingencies are mixed in regard to favorability, that is, when conditions are relatively ordered. • The emphasis on relationships helps to mitigate the negative effect of unfavorable contingencies.

22. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory • Low LPC are task-oriented • Rated more unfavorably • Low LPC leaders perform best when the three contingencies are unfavorable (disorder) or all three are favorable (order). • In short, task-oriented leadership is preferred in very favorable or least favorable situation

23. House’s Path-Goal Theory • Approach is based on the expectancy theory of motivation and emphasizes the three motivational variables that leaders may influence through their behaviors or decision-making styles. • Valences • Instrumentalities • Expectancies • Leader’s primary purpose is to motivate followers by clarifying goals and identifying the best paths to achieve those goals.

24. House’s Path-Goal Theory • Leaderis to manipulate these 3 motivational variables in desirable ways considering a variety of leadership styles, characteristics of subordinates, and situational factors • Leadership (behavioral) styles: • Directive, • Supportive, • Participative, and • Achievement-oriented

25. Vroom and Yetton Model • Describes the different ways leaders can make decisions and guides leaders in determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision making. • Leadership as the degree of subordinate participation in decision making processes. • The decision tree model proposes that the most effective leadership style depends on the characteristics of both the situation and the followers, emphasizing the fact the leaders achieve success through effective decision making.

26. Hersey and Blanchard: Life-Cycle Model • Proposes that the effectiveness of a leader’s decision-making style depends largely on followers’ level of maturity, job experience, and emotional maturity. • This model proposes two basic dimensions on which decision-making style may vary: • task orientation • relationship orientation • The model suggests these two dimensions combine to form four distinct types of decision styles: Telling, selling, participating, delegating

27. Attribution Models • People actively search for explanations of the behavior that they observe, and form hypotheses as to the causes of that behavior. • The resulting causal attributions determine cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses toward the actor. • Leaders take into account: • The extent to which behavior is consistent with past behaviors • The extent to which others in the same situation behave likewise.

28. Leader-Member Exchange Theory • Leader-member exchange theory maintains that the leader and each individual member of a work group have a unique "dyadic" relationship. • Each dyad is seen as a social exchange or negotiated transaction of leader-member. • The basic assumption is that leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each individual subordinate. • Exchange relationships can take two different forms. • High-exchange relationship • Low-exchange relationship

29. Social Exchange Theory • Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1978). • People learn by watching others, modeling, and through vicarious learning. Thus leadership must also take into account social learning and internal mental states. • “Feedforward” techniques to anticipate problems and avoid them • Enhance employee acceptance of goals by involving them in their development; emphasize self-management; recognize how your environment influences your behavior. • Employ personal goal-setting, rehearsal, and self-instruction

30. Leadership and Organizational Culture • Transformational leaders exert their influence through “social architecture,” by working with the basic symbols and core values, or culture of their organization. • Leaders play key roles in forming, maintaining, and changing those cultures. • Recently, the subject came alive when management experts began to find that leaders in excellent corporations placed heavy emphasis on managing the cultural dimensions of their firms (Peters and Waterman; Ouchi).

31. Organizational Culture • Affects many aspects of organizations: effectiveness, motivation, change, communication, coordination costs, etc. • Increased competition, globalization, mergers, acquisitions, alliances, and various workforce developments have created a greater need for: • Coordination and integration across organizational units in order to improve efficiency, quality, and speed of designing, manufacturing, and delivering products and services. • Product innovation

32. Communication of Culture • Various forms that transmit an organization’s culture serve as “sense-making mechanisms” for people in organization as they interpret what goes on around them. • Symbols • Language • Narratives • Practices and events

33. Communication of Culture • Symbols: Physical objects, settings, and certain roles within an organization convey information about its values and basic assumptions. • Language: Slang, songs, slogans, and jargons can all carry the messages of a culture. • Narratives: The people in an organization often repeat stories, legends, sagas, and myths that convey information about the organization’s history and practices. • Practices and Events: Repeated practices and special events can transmit important assumptions and values. They may include rites and ceremonies

34. Leading Cultural Development • Make clear what leaders will monitor, ignore, measure, control • React to critical incidents and organizational crises in ways that send appropriate cultural messages • Practice deliberate role modeling, teaching, coaching • Establish effective criteria for advancement, punishment • Coordinate organizational designs an structures with cultural messages

35. Leading Cultural Development • Design physical spaces to communicate culture • Use stories about events, people • Develop formal statements of organizational philosophy • Approach cultural leadership as comprehensive organizational change

36. Contingencies and Variations • Many variations in context and in the individual officials surveyed account for the different views about managerial roles of public managers. • The level of the manger and the institutional context varies. • Public mangers must balance managerial tasks with policymaking and with handling the political and institutional environment (oversight agencies, legislative and other executive authorities, clients and constituents, and the media).

37. Effective Leadership in Government • The generalizations are inaccurate. • Government executives, like private manager executives vary widely in their skill, motivations, orientations etc. • A typology on managerial skills and commitment to goals is one approach to addressing this. Marmor (1986) and Felman (1987)

38. Entrepreneur Typology of Public Executives high Skills low Commitment to program goals high Adapted from Rainey 2003, explanation of classification by Felman (1986) and Marmor (1987)

39. Lessons from Leaderships • No single leadership works in all circumstances and contexts. • Leadership is to be built, not fixed or given. • Zone of acceptance (cooperation) & rationality • Need to be exposed to many leadership cases, for example, from history in the East and West • Learn different styles and leadership skills; examine circumstances (subordinate, task, culture, etc.); and choose the most likely style • “Chameleon leaderships”