Introduction to Qualitative Research Design

1. Introduction to Qualitative Research Design By: S. Babar Ali

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: GROWING IN POPULARITY IN HEALTH AND MEDICINE • Qualitative methods are becoming increasingly prevalent in medical and related research. They provide additional ways for health researchers to explore and explain the contexts in which they and their patients function, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of many aspects of the healthcare system.‟ (Kuper et al, 2006: 406) • Experiences in qualitative research?

3. What is Qualitative research? • The goal of Qualitative research is the development of concepts which helps to understand social phenomena in natural (rather then experimental) setting, giving due to emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all the participants. (Pope & Mays,1995).

4. What is Qualitative research? Bryman’s (1998) characteristics of qualitative research: • Seeing through eyes • Describing the details of everyday settings • Understanding actions and meaning in their social context

5. Qualitative research • Qualitative research, also called field research, typically involves fieldwork in which the researcher observes and records behavior and events in their natural setting. • The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, or site in order to observe the subject as it normally and naturally occurs or behaves.

6. The types of objectives Positivist/Quantitative To count To quantify To measure To determine the effect A vs B Naturalistic/Qualitative To identify To explore To qualify To elucidate To describe To document

7. Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Largely draw on positivist paradigm Extensive (large sample) Statistical sample of the population Techniques ( questionnaire, measurement) Focus: how many, determine single/causal relationship Analysis- mainly deductive Quantitative Qualitative • Largely draw on naturalistic paradigm • Intensive (small sampling) • Symbolic-representative of group • Technique-interview, group discussions, observations • Focus-Why, how, understand multiple inter-relationship • Analysis-mainly inductive

8. POSITIVIST („HARD‟ SCIENCES‟) VERSUS QUALITATIVE („SOFT SCIENCES‟) RESEARCH Positivism • “…emphasizes the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes – proponents of such studies claim that their work is done in value-free framework” …contends that there is a reality out there to be objectively studied, captured, understood.” Positivist (e.g. quantitative) methods ar employed to isolate causes and effects: • -to measure and quantify phenomena • -to allow for the generalization of findings

9. „HARD‟ VS „SOFT‟ SCIENCES RESEARCH Qualitative Social Sciences Response to the failings of traditional deductive methodologies. Reject positivist criteria of evaluating data: replicability, „validity‟, objective, value-free. Emphasize innovative, inductive methods and research strategies Seek alternative methods for evaluating the „success‟ of qualitative research: multi-voiced texts, dialogical research, reflexivity. Use of experimental qualitative genres: narrative, storytelling, filmmaking.

10. DEDUCTIVE VERSUS INDUCTIVE PROCESSES Deductive process in quantitative studies begins with theory Examines hypothetical relationships within it Hypothesis – tested Inductive process in qualitative studies begins with observations Open questions which are applied to guide initial research Research is refined over the course of fieldwork and the collection and preliminary thematic analysis of data Inductive research drives the identification of situation-specific analytical approaches, or, the formulation of theory generated from study observations and findings (grounded theory)

11. Deductive reasoning • Associated with positivist/experimental approach • Researcher begins with acceptance of a general principle or belief and then apply that principle to explain a specific case or phenomenon. (DePoy & Gitlin, 1994)

12. Core Activities in Qualitative Research • Literature Review- a cursory review may be done initially to focus the study, otherwise it is conducted after the data has been collected and analyzed. • Rationale for delaying the L.R. is to avoid leading the participants in the direction of what has already been discovered. • Purpose of L.R. is to show how current findings fit into what is already known

13. Explicating Researcher’s Beliefs • Bracketing - setting aside one’s biases and personal views on a topic • Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts and feelings about the topic • Purpose is to make known to the researcher her/his beliefs about the topic so that the researcher may approach the topic honestly

14. Setting for Data Collection • The field is the natural world where participants live • The field requires reciprocity in terms of decision making • The participant & researcher determine what data will be shared • Participants must understand & be willing to share their thoughts & feelings about the phenomenon • Contrast this with quantitative studies where data are collected in controlled settings & the researcher is removed from the subject

15. Selection of Participants • Participant or informant refers to the individual who informs the research study (vs subjects or respondents) • They are active participants & equal partners • Must have 1st hand experience with research phenomenon (vs random selection) • They want to help others understand their lives & the social contexts in which they live & create meaning

16. Purposive Sampling • Participants must have first hand experience with the research experience and be able to talk about it • Researcher establishes clear criteria & rationale for sample selection • Goal is not generalization of findings but rich descriptions of phenomenon by those who have experienced it

17. Saturation • A situation in data collection in which participants’ descriptions become repetitive & confirm previously collected data • An indication that data collection is complete • Similar to adequate sample size in quantitative research

18. Data Analysis • Researcher immerses self in data to bring order & meaning to vast narrative • Begins with 1st data collection episode • Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing, synthesizing & reporting on data • Cyclical & recursive process that requires an extensive amount of time

19. Scientific Adequacy • RIGOR in qualitative research is less about the adherence to rules and more about fidelity to the spirit and standards of qualitative work (Sandelowski, 1993)

20. Data Analysis (cont’d) • Data from interviews are continuously reviewed to identify additional questions • Data from earlier interviews are routinely returned to participants for clarification/elaboration • Investigator must look for meaning in the data as it is reviewed

21. Data Analysis (Cont’d) • At conclusion of study a protracted period of data immersion in which conclusions are reviewed in the context of the whole study • Data similar in meaning are clustered together into preliminary categories

22. 4 Criteria of Trustworthiness • Credibility • Transferability • Dependability • Confirmability

23. Credibility • Refers to the accuracy of the description • Is the description plausible & recognized by those who experienced it. • Enhanced by prolonged time in the field • Repeatedly observing & interacting with participants • Triangulation of data sources, methods, data type, investigators, & theories • Member checks-participants involved with data analysis

24. Dependability • Refers to the stability & trackability of the changes in data over time & conditions • Reflects the reality that people’s situations change & reality differs for people • Want to determine the extent to which another researcher with similar training & rapport with participants would make the same observations • This is determined by an audit trail

25. Transferability • Concerned with generalizability or fittingness of findings to other settings, populations, & contexts • Report must provide sufficient detail so that readers can assess this • Lack of transferability is often viewed as a weakness of qualitative methods

26. Confirmability • Basic issue here is one of neutrality • Do conclusions depend upon the subjects & conditions of inquiry rather than on the researcher • Would 2 independent researchers agree about the meanings emerging from the data • An audit trail is used • researcher must explicate how personal biases may have come into play and consider alternative explanations

27. Advantages & Limitations • Focus on the whole of the human experience & the meanings ascribed to them by participants they provide nurses with deep insights that would not be possible using quantitative methods exclusively • The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the data it produces • Participants true reality is likely to be reflected

28. Advantages & Limitations (cont’d) • Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity & generalizability • Researchers become the research tools and may lack objectivity

29. Developing the Question • Focus is to describe the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of the participant • Broad question: “What is the meaning of one’s lived experience?” • Central overarching question & subquestions

30. Role of Researcher • Is the instrument for data collection • Establishes good rapport with participants • Explicates beliefs through bracketing • The meaning of the lived experience is interpreted from the participants’ stories

31. Sample • Small purposive sample • Participants are able & willing to talk about their experience and describe their feelings • Large enough to get a rich description of the research phenomenon

32. Data Collection • In-depth interviews • Written descriptions of experiences in diaries & journals • Observations • Multiple interviews with same participants to reflect the meaning of the lived experience from the participants’ perspective

33. Data Analysis • Immersion with the data • Read, re-read transcripts, may return to participants for clarification or description • Comparative analysis to identify themes in data • Look for similarities & differences in data to identify themes • Reduce data into smaller & smaller number of categories to arrive at a consistent description of the meaning of the lived experience • Share description with participants for verification

34. Review of Literature • Conducted after data collection & analysis are complete • Places findings within the context of what is known about the phenomenon

35. Findings • reports the essence of the experience • reader should get an understanding of what it is like to experience the phenomenon

37. END