The History of English!

1. The History of English! Yaaaaaaaaaaayy!!!!!!!!!!!

2. Part 1: • English comes from an Indo-European language spoken in Europe or West Asia about 7000 years ago. • It broke up around 4000BC to India, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Northern and Western Europe. • By the 1st century AD, it had broken into Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Germanic • Latin  Italian, French, Spanish • Germanic  German, Dutch, Swedish, English

3. More Part 1 • English begins around 449 AD with the Anglo-Saxon and Jute invasions of Britain. • Alphabet was runic—used for carvings • Not much writing • Knowledge passed down orally • Most of what we know of Old English comes from writings of monks (they were the only educated ones) who used the Latin alphabet, not runes.

4. The End of Part 1 • Modern English prepositions, conjunctions, & pronouns, plus lots of common nouns & verbs are from OE. • Basic sentence structure & grammar still the same as OE—other languages just gave us new words. • Other contributors to English during this time: • Celtic—place names & geographical terms • Latin—some everyday words, plus religious & education words • Old Norse—some common words, + -by (from “byr,” which means “town”)

5. Reading for Part 1! • Beowulf: Very old epic poem • Passed down orally for generations before written down by monks (they were the only ones who could write) • Demonstrates conflicting values: old pagan hero v. Christian sensibility • Will sometimes have “interruptions” where writer injects mini-sermons into the text • “’Neath the cloudy cliffs came from the moor then Grendel going, God’s anger bare he.” • Read Beowulf, parts 3, 12, and 13

6. Part 2! • By the end of the Middle Ages, major changes had occurred • Simplified word endings—probably from talking fast • The Norman Conquest: William the Conqueror from Normandy (in modern France) conquers England • Really began 200 years after Conquest when Normans began considering themselves English and using English language • Assimilation of over 10,000 French words into English language • Replaced some words, but often added synonyms or completely new words

7. More Part 2 • Trade with Low Countries (area around Belgium & the Netherlands) brought some commercial terms • Examples  freight, mart • Beginnings of standard written English based on the London dialect. • London is the capital, and seat of power and influence.

8. The End of Part 2 • Great Vowel Shift: English vowels used to sound more like those of Latin or Spanish. • In the 15th and 16th centuries we shifted to current sounds • Not entirely sure why! • England is an island, so it tense to be isolated—language develops more independently.

9. Reading for Part 2! • The Canterbury Tales: Widely considered to be the first English-language novel • The story of travelers making a pilgrimage to Canterbury (a holy site); each traveler tells a tale to pass the time • Stories of each traveler range from noble (and kind of boring) to incredibly bawdy • Each story reflects the character of the person who tells it • Read “The Pardoner’s Tale” • A Pardoner was a person in the Church who sold indulgences—and this one is really quite corrupt. Look for irony!

10. Part 3 • Shakespeare = Modern English because he’s post-Great Vowel Shift • End of pronouncing the “e” at the end of words (strange, ende)-some spellings change; some don’t • Many unaccented vowels turned into “uh” (schwa sound) • Spellings didn’t change much when pronunciations did because standard written form had already started. • Standardized spellings were reinforced by the introduction of the printing press (night, space, gnat)

11. More Part 3 • Educated people started using English all the time for most communication, but often had to borrow Latin & Greek words for which there was no English word. • Latin: allusion, exist • Greek: synonymous, catastrophe • Many academic works still written in Latin

12. The End of Part 3 • Travel added words: • France: vogue, mustache • Italy: piazza, sonata (and many other musical terms) • New World: alligator, cocoa, canoe, hurricane • It was fashionable to use foreign expressions in writing to sound smarter—many words became a permanent part of the language • Celebrate, confidence, strenuous

13. Reading for Part 3! • Soliloquy from Hamlet: Hamlet’s father is dead and his mother married his father’s brother who is now the king. Hamlet has just discovered that his uncle killed his father. He is deciding how to proceed. What is he really trying to decide here? • Dr. Faustus: The classic sell-your-soul-to-the-devil conundrum (same roots as “The Devil and Tom Walker”). In this scene, Dr. Faustus is sealing the deal with Mephastophilis, a demon. Look for the irony in Mephastophilis’ advice to Faustus, and his surprising statements about Hell.

14. Part 4 • 17th Century (1600s): English stabilizes and doesn’t borrow so much from other languages. • Interest in scientific progress caused writing to focus on making language clear and accurate. • Some scientific work still written in Latin (Newton), but much philosophy written in English (Hobbes—Leviathan) • REFORMATION: As groups break off from the Catholic church, the Bible is translated in the languages of the people, ending many all-Latin church services.

15. More Part 4 • As English people moved into all parts of the world, they took the language abroad, bringing English to and borrowing words from other lands. • Creates a bigger market for works written in English—there’s more English speakers now. • 1600s: Colonization in America eventually leads to a whole new branch of English language

16. The End of Part 4 • 1611: King James version of the Bible published: had a HUGE influence on both spoken and written English. It was seen as the standard of “good” English. • Influenced nearly everyone, because nearly everyone had a copy of the Bible. • Overall: • Words narrowed in meaning (silly, constant) • Formal words used less frequently • Benignity  kindness • Beseech  ask

17. Reading for Part 4! • KJV: the Second chapter of Luke—of It’s Christmas Charlie Brown fame. • Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan: a political-philosophical work discussing the nature of governments. Look for what he says are the first and second natural laws, and under what conditions men surrender certain rights. • “Easter Wings”: a concrete poem by George Herbert. Look for how Herbert uses the shape of the poem to make his point. There’s one obvious and one not-as-obvious function of the shape.

18. Part 5 • By late 17th century, writing more closely resembles speech. • “Royal Society”: Group of philosophers and scientists who wanted to “improve the English tongue.” • Created a committee to create dictionary and grammar, reform spellings, etc. • Committee fell apart after short time • Desired result came about anyway through individual writers’ efforts to improve their own writing.

19. More Part 5 • 18th Century linguists also concerned with correctness in language. • Many wanted to prevent changes to language. • They feared if language kept changing, great literature would be lost to future generations—this hasn’t happened as badly as they feared it would • Why not? Written language was widespread and more people could read. The written word curbed the influence of individual dialects. • BUT the written word also spreads new words and expressions more quickly

20. The End of Part 5 • From this point, English becomes mainly a language of growth. It doesn’t lose as many words and its structure doesn’t significantly change much.

21. Reading for Part 5! • “A Modest Proposal”: a work of satire by Jonathon Swift. At the time, Ireland belong to England. English landowners exacted high rents with little disregard for whether their Irish tenants could pay them. Many in Ireland were starving, and the English appeared not to care whether the Irish-Catholics lived or died. • A satire uses humor (often dark), irony, and sarcasm to point out the flaws of people or society. • What is Swift’s proposal? Look for the nature of the language he uses. What point is he making? (Hint: he isn’t actually advocating what he says he is.)

22. Part 6: The Romantics (don’t panic, guys) • The Romantic Age: time of imperialism and English dominance at sea. • Flood of new words from settlements • North American Indians: totem, skunk, hickory, moose • Spanish territories: chili, potato, jerky, buccaneer, CHOCOLATE! • India: bandana, calico, bungalow, jungle, veranda • Australia: kangaroo, boomerang

23. More Part 6 • There were lingering worries about correctness. • Concern about slang like “what on earth” or “row” (fight) • Noah Webster: slang was “low, vulgar, unmeaning language.” Many modern-day linguists feel the same way about “my bad,” “bling,” “down with that,” text talk, etc. • Webster, by publishing the first American dictionary, got to choose many spellings and differentiated American spellings on purpose • Color, not colour, center, not centre, etc.

24. The End of Part 6 • Authors of this time looked to folk ballads and common speech for inspiration in choosing language. • They were expressing personal experiences, not well-reasoned thoughts. • Tended to write about love, death, and nature.

25. Reading for Part 6! • “Ode to the West Wind”: the poet Shelley lived a hard and fast life, often in public disgrace or turmoil. Look especially at the last 2 stanzas. What is he saying? What does he want of the wind? (Hint: the wind is kind of just a symbol!) • “Apostrophe to the Ocean”: most famous portion of a larger workcalled Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage • Apostrophe= a direct address to something, often inanimate or non-sentient. • Compare what Byron says about the power of the Ocean v. Man. What is his relationship with the ocean?

26. Part 7: Victorians • Victorian Age named after Queen Victoria, who stabilized the country with a long reign (1837-1903) • Huge Empire + Industrial Revolution = Social Unrest • This period experienced an uneasy tension between old and new ways of life. • More new words from foreign settlements (many animal names) • Africa: aardvark, gnu • Australia/New Zealand: wombat, wallaby

27. More Part 7 • Industrial Revolution brought new science and technology words • Steam engine: piston, drive shaft, steam roller • Electrical power: volt, watt, ampere, dynamo • Railroad: locomotive, timetable • Old words fell into disuse, especially horse & carriage related words: swingle, victoria, hackney, tally ho

28. Even More Part 7 • Oxford English Dictionary: Gives origins of hundreds of thousands of words, including the dates and examples of 1st known use. • Work of over 1000 readers and editors • Took over 70 years to finish • Under constant revision as language develops • Currently fills 15 volumes

29. The End of Part 7 • Other world-rocking event: Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, introducing the theory of evolution. • Victorian writers found changes disturbing and were uneasy with their conflicting influences (science and faith, rural v. urban, technological v. pastoral) • Retreated to a love of the past and rural scenes • But also worked for scientific-like accuracy in their writing. • Tended to write about love, death, nature, and God.

30. Reading for Part 7! • “Dover Beach”: a demonstration of Victorians’ conflicted and challenged beliefs. What does Arnoldsay about the world? What is his answer to this uncertainty? • “Ulysses”: an imagining of what Odysseus (Ulysses) would be like in later life, and how he adjusts (or not) to life on the home front. What does he want? What is his attitude toward old age? *Note: M quotes this poem in Skyfall! • “Crossing the Bar”: Tennyson asked that this be the last poem printed in any anthology of his. He wanted it to be his last word. What is he really talking about? Who is the Pilot? In his Victorian conflict, what wins?

31. Why spell so goofy?From Proust and the Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading Brain by Maryanne Wolf • Highly irregular spellings of many English words (including “highly”) occur in part because English is morphophonemic. • Morphophonemic . . . • “morph” from morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning • “phon” from phoneme, the smallest unit of sound • So . . . Some syllables are spelled phonemically (the way they sound) and others are spelled morphemically (showing the root meaning they came from)

32. Example: • Muscle: the “c” seems unnecessary because we don’t pronounce it, BUT it’s spelled with a “c” because the word comes from the Latin word “musculus” • Muscle shares the same root as muscular and musculature, in which we DO pronounce the “c.” • Thus, we leave the “c” in muscle to visually demonstrate its connection to its root and to other words with the same root.

33. About Vowels • Another cause of confusing spellings—English has only 5 vowels in alphabet, but pronounces over a dozen vowel sounds. • Thus, each vowel is pronounced multiple ways both alone and in combination.

34. Borrowed Words • Another reason for weird spellings (like the word “weird”): • English borrows so very many words from other languages • Generally, the foreign word retains the original foreign spelling (if the original language used the same alphabet).

35. The Takeaway: (if you were in the UK, that would mean takeout…) • Language are ALIVE!!!!! They grow, change, develop, and sometimes even die in response to changes in society and culture. • Even the same language, separated by distance, can develop many differences • Flat/apartment • Torch/flashlight • Car park/parking lot • Takeaway/ takeout • Form/grade • Boot/trunk

36. Linguistics = Awesome