Serology

1. Serology The Bodily Fluids (Serums)

2. Your identity shows up in more places than your driver’s license…

3. Blood, sweat, tears, semen, saliva, and vaginal fluids are some of the bodily fluids that are frequently found at the scene of a crime. Investigators can determine a suspect’s or victim’s identity through a science called Serology

4. This brings us to Blood Blood by far is the most common bodily fluid left at a crime scene and it’s the most useful because it opens up many avenues of investigation for the forensics team to travel down.

5. Understanding Blood • Blood is a mixture of many components. • The liquid portion of blood is the plasma. It contains proteins, enzymes, clotting factors, electrolytes and various cells. • The solid portion of blood are the cells. • Leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC) • Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) • Platelets or tiny cells involved in blood clotting.

6. The Discovery of Blood Groups Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.

7. ABO blood grouping system According to the ABO blood typing system there are four different kinds of blood types: A, B, AB or O (null). Do you know what type you are???

8. Antigens – Antibodies What makes you the type that you are? Blood group A If you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

9. Blood group B If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.

10. ??? What do you think blood type AB looks like? Type O?

11. Blood Type AB Blood Type O

12. What about this Rh stuff? Think of the + and – of a blood type as another antigen found on the surface of a RBC. If you are positive (Ex: A+) you have the extra protein. If you are negative, you do not have the extra protein.

13. Transfusions A transfusion is often shown as a bag of blood hanging next to a hospital bed with a tube going into a patient. (Thanks Karl for making it safe now.) The key thing to note is that consider that only the RBC are being transfused; not the plasma. If you remember this key point all will be well.

14. Fill in the chart with the appropriate terms:

15. Can Give Blood To: Can Get Blood From Type Antigen Antibody Neither A nor B AB A and B AB A, B, O, AB A A B A, AB O, A B, AB O , B B B A Neither A nor B O A and B A, B, O, AB O

16. OK…so what does this have to do with forensic science? First, if you find blood at a crime scene you can eliminate someone from being a suspect with a quick blood typing test (DNA fingerprinting is so expensive and takes weeks to complete). It may not pinpoint someone specific but it is useful.

17. Who’s Your Daddy??? A Jerry Springer show in the making…. Remember Punnett squares from Biology??? (Cue: Say ‘yes’) A women wants to find out if so-and-so is the father of her baby. She wants child support and is convinced that he is the true father.

18. She takes him on TV and wildly denies that she has been with 100 other guys; only ‘him’. The baby has blood type A. Mom has blood type AB and Dad has blood type ‘B’. Can he be the father? Remember that the genotype for blood types can be either homozygous or heterozygous. So, what do you remember?

19. Mom’s genotype is definitely AB. Dad can be homozygous (BB) or he could be heterozygous (BO) for blood type B. Place the genotypes in the Punnett and figure out the possible offspring of this union. Is ‘so-and-so’ the father? Is this conclusive?

20. Now we get to the crime scene itself… We see that there has been a crime committed and that there appears to be red liquid in the area. We need to answer the questions: • Is this blood? • Is it human blood? • Whose blood is it?

21. P.S. When collecting blood from a crime scene be sure to package the blood after it dries. Remember that wet evidence packaged will be rendered unusable if mold or bacteria start to grow. Blood is vulnerable to Putrefaction (decay).

22. Knowing when blood’s really blood Presumptive Tests: Oxidation reactions revealing a color change 1. Kastle-Meyer Color Test: Phenolphthalein and Hydrogen Peroxide… Reacts with the heme group of hemoglobin and causes a dark pink color to appear. 2. Hemastix strip – A pretreated stick that when in contact with the heme group of blood will turn the strip blue-green.

23. Knowing when blood’s really blood Presumptive Tests: Oxidation reactions revealing a Fluorescence or glowing change. • Luminol – When sprayed on a questioned area reacts with the heme group of hemoglobin and will glow unless the area has been covered up or washed with bleach. Not good on vertical surfaces: will run. • Fluorescein - When sprayed on a questioned area reacts with the heme group of hemoglobin and will glow even if bleach has been used. Viscous: so good on vertical surfaces.

24. Knowing when blood’s really blood Confirmatory Tests: Crystalization and DNA 1. Crystalization Teichmann… =Acid+salt+heme=crystals Takayama… =Base+salt+heme=crystals 2. DNA testing……another lecture

25. Knowing when blood’s really Human • Microscopic survey (remember lab ?) 2. Precipitin Test (rabbit as host, wait to build antibodies, mix samples to see if agglutination occurs)

26. Secretors Approximately 80% - 85% of the population are secretors meaning they emit proteins of their ABO blood type in all bodily fluid, including seminal fluid, saliva, and tears. ABO types found in these fluids can be used to eliminate a suspect in rape, but they cannot accurately identify the individual who secreted them.

27. Other Bodily Fluids Semen: Presumptive testing – • Acid Phosphatase (AP) are classes of proteins commonly found in animals and plants. Semen contains a high level of SAP (Seminal AP) • Semen fluoresces (glows) when an ultraviolet light or laser light shines on a sample.

28. Unfortunately, so do watermelons and cauliflower but they are not usually in question….

29. Semen cont. Confirmatory testing: 1. Microscopic examination – spermatozoa is only found in semen so finding them under a microscope is absolute proof that semen is present 2. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) – PSA is found in high concentration in semen (even if sperm itself is not found)…antibody analysis is done to confirm this.

30. Vaginal Fluids Vaginal fluid is more difficult to detect than seminal fluid. Epithelial cells that line the vagina are high in glycogen (a starch which is stored within the cells). Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) is a reagent that stains glycogen a bright magenta color in the presence of vaginal fluid.

31. The Glitches Not all vaginal epithelial cells contain glycogen. Cells from young women who have not begun menstruating as well as cells from post-menopausal women rarely contain glycogen. Many times the test comes back negative even though vaginal fluids are present. So..it is confirmatory on the positive but not the negative.

32. Saliva Saliva is another fluid commonly found at crime scenes. Saliva can be found from food, a cigarette butt, eating utensils, or even from an envelope of a threatening letter.

33. Saliva cont. Saliva is high in amylase; a digestive enzyme. There exists chemical testing for amylase but this test is merely presumptive.

34. Sweat Sweat contains water, salts, and metabolic wastes. The chief metabolic waste is the nitrogen based molecule known as UREA. Urea stains clothing and transfers easily. Presumptive testing only…for urea. Anywhere else to find urea ?

35. During sexual assaults semen, saliva and vaginal fluid are commonly transferred to the victim, the victim’s clothing or nearby surfaces.

36. Finding out when sexual intercourse or rape occurred often is critical in forensics and courtroom procedures. The duration of sperm mobility in living victims is from 4-6 hours. In the case of rape-homicide, sperm can remain in the vagina of the victim for up to two weeks. Dried semen stains can remain identifiable and useable for DNA analysis for many years even after dry cleaning! Timing is everything…

37. What is all of that scientificy stuff regarding DNA and blood? DNA fingerprinting, PCR, STR is the way to individualize samples. It is very incriminating. Don’t even bother to deny anything if DNA points to you… unless you are an identical twin!

38. There is a great website that will walk you through DNA and the latest techniques used in forensic science. Click on the link below. Interactive DNA stuff

39. In a very, very small nutshell…. There are two main techniques used for the analysis of DNA, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Each takes the most unique parts of DNA, creates banded patterns from those sections and compares them to others to seek similarities.

40. The printout of the RFLP looks like a bunch of horizontal lines stacked up.

41. RFLP’s are great if you have a blood sample the size of a quarter but sometimes you don’t have that much. PCR is so sensitive that you can have as little as that which is the size of a head of a pin.

42. PCR readouts show alleles and whether the person is homozygous or heterozygous for that gene. It’s really quite involved so just know that you will get caught if you leave your DNA around.

43. Oh, and there is the ‘other’ kind of DNA… • There is mitochondrial DNA which not the same as the DNA taken from the nucleus. • Mitochondrial DNA is found in the mitochondria (the ‘powerhouses’) of the cell. Mitochondrial DNA is only handed down from the maternal side of the family. Identical copies from the mother are passed down to all of the offspring. This means that the mDNA is identical among brothers and sisters. You can really put a family together by comparing mDNA.

44. It also means that mDNA is horrible at individualizing people but really great at establishing lineage. • mDNA can stay preserved in bone cells so well that you can process mDNA from bones that are hundreds of years old. • You can compare your mDNA to skeletons from the 1600s to see if they were related. • Hopefully, your distant ancestors weren’t criminals. Your family inheritance may be in question.