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Welcome to BUAD 310

Welcome to BUAD 310. Instructor: Kam Hamidieh Lecture 4, Monday January 27, 2014. Agenda & Announcement. Today : Chapter 6 (Only Sections 6.1 & 6.2, will say more when we get to linear regression.) Read pages 105-110. Chapters 7. Read all of it! Note:

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Welcome to BUAD 310

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  1. Welcome to BUAD 310 Instructor: Kam Hamidieh Lecture 4, Monday January 27, 2014

  2. Agenda & Announcement • Today: • Chapter 6 (Only Sections 6.1 & 6.2, will say more when we get to linear regression.) Read pages 105-110. • Chapters 7. Read all of it! • Note: • Make sure you are getting my email messages! • I changed the syllabus slightly. • HW 1 is due this Wednesday by 5 PM. No extensions will be given. • Recall my office hours? BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  3. Answer to the In Class Exercise 2 from Last Time Data: {271, 275, 285, 288, 288, 289, 292, 294, 295, 305, 313, 332} Max = 332 313 Q3 = 300 Q1 = 287 Min = 271 BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  4. Very Interesting Article! See: http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2014/01/how-to-hack-okcupid/ (Many thanks to Sonny N.) BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  5. From Last Time • Five Number Summary:Min, Q1, Q2 (Median), Q3, Max • The five number summaries are used to create boxplots: • Another way to visually summarize the distribution of data. • Tool for detecting outliers. • Can hide certain things: bimodality for example. • Variability of your data: • Range: largest - smallest • IQR: Q3 – Q1 • Standard Deviation: roughly the average distance of your points from the overall mean. (SD2 = Variance) BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  6. A Realistic Example • Investors are often interested involatilityof a stock (or an asset.) • Volatility of a stock is roughly the standard deviation of the stock’s returns over a certain time period. • For example, a volatility of 13% per year means that on average, the stock value could go up or down by 13% in a year. • Why care about volatility? BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  7. A Realistic Example “Traders only care about two things: alcohol and volatility!” NassimTaleb Check “Market Volatility” and “Market Fear” on http://www.google.com/trends/ BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  8. A Realistic Example • Which company, Apple or ExxonMobil, has more volatility? • You can download Exxon-Mobile, and Apple and compare the distribution of the returns. • HOW? (Go to finance.yahoo.com!) BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  9. What can you say? s ≈ 1% s ≈ 1.8%

  10. FYI…. > round(summary(xom.returns), 1) Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. -3.4 -0.5 0.0 0.0 0.6 3.3 > round(sd(xom.returns),1) [1] 0.9 > round(summary(apple.returns),1) Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. -13.2 -0.9 0.0 0.1 1.1 8.5 > round(sd(apple.returns),1) [1] 1.8 BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  11. Scatterplots • Scatterplots are two dimensional plots of data. • They tell us about the strength, direction, and the nature of the relationship between two variables. • Direction: • Two variables have a positive association when the values of one variable go up, the values of the other variable go up on average. • Two variables have a negative associationwhen the values of one variable go up, the values of the other variable go down on average. • Nature of the relationship: linear or curved? (Curvature) • Strength: how tightly the points are clustered around some straight line or a curve. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  12. No relationship Nonlinear Generic Example Linear BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  13. Strength of Relationship The strength of the relationship between the two variables can be seen by the amount of variation: With a strong relationship, you can get a pretty good estimate of y if you know x. With a weak relationship, for any x you might get a wide range of y values. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  14. Example of a Scatterplot State Verbal Math PctTook 1 AL 562 558 8 2 AK 521 520 52 3 AZ 525 528 32 4 AR 568 555 6 5 CA 497 516 47 6 CO 537 542 31 7 CT 510 509 80 8 DE 501 493 70 9 DC 488 476 83 10 FL 500 501 52 11 GA 486 482 64 12 HI 483 513 55 13 ID 545 544 16 14 IL 564 581 13 15 IN 497 500 59 16 IA 593 601 5 17 KS 582 585 9 • The data consists of the average math and verbal SAT scores in 1998 for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. • The PctTook variable is the percent of graduating seniors who took the test that year. • Is there a relationship between the average math and the average verbal scores? BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  15. Example of a Scatterplot The nature of the relationship: There seem to be a linear relationship. See the line! Direction: The relationship is positive. As the math scores go up, the verbal scores go up on the average. Strength: The relationship seems to be strong. The points are bunched very close to the possible underlying line. WARNING: You can NOT conclude that high math scores cause high verbal scores! BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  16. In Class Exercise 1 The plot shows the daily percentage changes (returns) of Chevron versus Crude oil prices from Jan 2, 2013 to Aug 19, 2013. Answer: • Comment on the relationship: strength, nature, direction, unusual points, etc. • Comment on the following statements: • “The plot proves that crude oil returns cause changes in Chevron returns.” • “As oil price goes up, so does chevron’s stock.” BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  17. Random Phenomenon • A random phenomenon is one in which the outcome of some situation is uncertain. • The word random in statistics in not synonymous with “haphazard” or “chaotic” but a description of a kind of order that emerges in the long run. • Examples: • Toss of a fair coin: heads or tails. • Toss of a fair die: any number between 1 and 6 BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  18. What is probability? • A probability is a number between 0 and 1 that is assigned to a possible outcome of a random phenomenon. • Probability theory is the major tool in statistical inference. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  19. Interpretation • We interpret the probability of a random phenomenon as the proportion (or relative frequency) of times it would occur over the long run. • Show coin tossing applet. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  20. Aside… • Around 1900, English statistician Karl Pearson tossed a coin 24,000. He got 12,012 heads or 50.05%. • While imprisoned by the Germans during WW II, the South African statistician John Kerrich tossed a coin 10,000 times and got heads 50.67%. K. Pearson ? J. Kerrich BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  21. The Law of Large Numbers (LLN) • LLN:The relative frequency of an outcome converges to a number, the probability of the outcome, as the number of observed outcomes increases. • Notes: • There are technical but intuitive conditions for the law to apply: roughly the conditions under which the “experiment” is done does not change too much and the attempts don’t influence each other too much. • LLN only applies in the long run. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  22. Determining Probabilities in Practice • Relative frequency probabilities can be determined by: • Making some assumptions about the physical world • Observing the results of random phenomenon over a long run • Measuring a representative sample and observing the relative frequencies of the sample that fall into various categories. • …. • Too morbid? “In the long run we are all dead.” ? BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  23. Probability Models • We are interested in a random phenomenonand we want to “model” it. • In the broadest sense, probability modeling means being able to assign probability values (between 0 and 1) to the possible outcomes of a random phenomenon . • Two parts to it: • list of outcomes, and • their probabilities. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  24. Some Terms • Sample space, S or Ω: the collection of unique, non-overlapping possible outcomes of a random phenomenon. Generally our question of interest determines the sample space. • Simple event: one outcome in the sample space • Event: a collection of one or more simple events in the sample space; often written as A, B, C, and so on. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  25. Example – Tossing a Fair Die Once • Throw a die once. • The sample space is S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. • A simple event is what we observe when we throw the die once: we could get a {1} or {2} or … {6}. • Possible events: • Event A = { all even numbers } = {2,4,6}. • Event B = {all numbers divisible by 3} = {3,6}. • Note when we say “Event A happened” we mean that we threw a 2 or 4 or 6. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  26. Example – Tossing Coins • We’ll toss a fair coin 2 times. • The sample space is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}. • A simple event is what we observe when we throw the coin twice: we could get a {HH} or {HT} or {TH} or {TT}. • Possible events: • Event A = { all outcomes containing at least one head } = {HH, HT, TH} • Event B = {all outcomes containing no heads } = {TT} BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  27. H - HHH H M - HHM H S = { HHH, HHM, HMH, HMM, MHH, MHM, MMH, MMM } Note: 8 elements, 23 H - HMH M M - HMM M … … More Examples of Sample Spaces 1.A basketball player shoots three free throws. What are the possible sequences of hits (H) and misses (M)? 2.A basketball player shoots three free throws. What is the number of baskets made? S = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } 3.A loan is made to a company. What is the time to default? S = [0, ∞)= (all numbers ≥ 0) BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  28. Equally Likely Events Sometimes, e.g. by symmetry, we assume all possible outcomes are equally likely. In this case: BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  29. More Examples of Equally Likely Case Tossing a die twice:S = {1-1,1-2,1-3,1-4,5-1,6-1,…,6-1,6-2,6-3,6-4,6-5,6-6}. Then P(1-1) = P(1-2) = … = P(6-6) = 1/36.Toss a die once: S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} Then P(1) = P(2) = … = P(6) = 1/6. Tossing a coin twice: S = {HH, HT , TH, TT}So P(HH) = … = P(TT) = ¼. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  30. Complementary Events • One event is the complement of another event if the two events do not contain any of the same simple events and together they cover the entire sample space. • To emphasize, complementary events can not happen at the same time. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  31. Complementary Events • Toss a die: S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. • Possible complementary events are: • A = {1,2,3} and AC = {4,5,6} • B = {Odd outcome} = {1,3,5} and BC = {Even Outcome} = {2,4,6}. • F = {outcome divisible by 3} = {3,6} and FC = {outcome not divisible by 3} = {1,2,4,5}. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  32. In Class Exercise 2 Suppose you toss a die twice and record the sum of the numbers you see. Here: S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, …, 10, 11, 12} Answer: • What is the probability that the sum is 7? • What is the probability the sum is not 7? • What is the probability that the sum is even? • What is the probability that the sum is odd? First Throw Second Throw BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  33. Mutually Exclusive Events • Two or more events are mutually exclusive if they do not contain any of the same simple events or outcomes. • The term disjoint is synonymous with mutually exclusive. • When two events are mutually exclusive, they can not happen at the same time. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  34. Example • Throw a fair die once. S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. • Possible mutually exclusive events are: • B = {Odd outcome} = {1,3,5} and C = {6} • F = {outcome divisible by 3} = {3,6}, D={1}, and E={5} • A = {1,2,3} and AC = {4,5,6} BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  35. Union of Events • Union of two events A and B is defined as the event consisting of all outcomes that are in A or B or both. • It is represented in two ways: • A or B = C • A  B = C • When we say event C happened, we mean that either event A or B or both happened. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  36. Example • Throw a die once. S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. • Consider the following events: • A = {1,2,3} and AC = {4,5,6} • B = {Odd outcome} = {1,3,5} • F = {Outcome divisible by 3} = {3,6} • Some unions: • A  AC = S • A  A = A • A  B = {1,2,3,5} • A  B  F = {1,2,3,5,6} • A  Ω = Ω Always True! Always True! Always True! BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  37. Intersection of Events • Intersection of two events A and B is defined as the event consisting of all outcomes that are both in A AND in B. • It is represented in two ways: • A and B = C • A  B = C • When we say event C happened, then that means both A and B happened. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  38. Examples • Our experiment is to toss a fair die once. The sample space is {1,2,3,4,5,6}. • Consider the following events: • A = {1,2,3} and AC = {4,5,6} • B = {Odd outcome} = {1,3,5} • F = {Outcome divisible by 3} = {3,6} • Some intersections: • A  AC = {} • A  A = A • A  B = {1,3} • A  B  F = {3} • A  S = A Always True! Always True! Always True! BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  39. Venn Diagrams • Venn diagrams are a visual way of representing how events are combined. • They are very helpful when you are starting with probability. • However, more complicated combination of events are very difficult to show using Venn diagrams. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  40. Venn Diagrams - Basics Events, such as A are represented by circled objects inside. Generally the size of A is proportional to P(A) The sample space, S, is presented by large box. S A BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  41. Venn Diagrams - Intersection The intersection of A and B is the shaded area where A and B intersect or have points in common, the blue area. S BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  42. Venn Diagrams - Union The union of A and B is the shaded area of A and B put together, the blue area. S BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  43. Venn Diagrams - Complement The complement of A, AC is the shaded area of everything that is not contained in A, the blue area. S What would two mutually exclusive events (but not complementary) look? BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  44. In Class Exercise 3 • T or F: Union of two mutually exclusive events will give you S. • T or F: Union of two complementary events will always give you S. • T or F: If two events are mutually exclusive, then they are complementary as well. • T or F: If two events are complementary, then they are mutually exclusive as well. BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

  45. Next Time • Chapter 7 & 8: More probability! BUAD 310 - Kam Hamidieh

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