CLASSICAL INDIA

1. CLASSICAL INDIA FROM THE MAURYANS TO THE GUPTAS

2. THE LATE VEDIC AGE • The Vedic Age: 1500 – 500 BCE • Name from Vedas, which records history • Began with Aryan migration into India • Aryans pushed into Ganges, up to Deccan • Eventually nomadic Aryans settled down • Ruled local inhabitants (dasas, Dravidians) • Ganges Republics (mahajanapadas): 900 – 500 BCE • Generally 16 larger states dominated Indus-Ganges Region • Republics dominated by kshatriyans (warrior-rulers) • States vied for power constantly with each other • Within states, kshatriyans vied for power with rulers • Rulers performed social, religious rituals • Magahda was one of the most dominant of the states • Religious society dominated by brahmins • Controlled ritual, rites, religious duties • Religion often called Brahmamism

3. JAINISM • Vardhamana Mahavira • Born in north India, 540 B.C.E. • Left family, searching for salvation from cycle of incarnation • Gained enlightenment, taught an ascetic doctrine • His disciples began to lead a monastic life • Mahavira became Jina, the "conqueror," and followers, Jains • Jainist doctrine and ethics • Inspired by the Upanishads • Everything in the universe possessed a soul • Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss • The principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things • Believed that almost all occupations entailed violence of some kind • Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmins • Appeal of Jainism • Social implication: Individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality • The Jains did not recognize social hierarchies of caste and jati • Became attractive to members of lower castes • The ascetic tradition continues to today

4. EARLY BUDDHISM • Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.E.) • Born in 563 B.C.E. to the Kshatriya caste • Witnessed miseries of the human condition • Gave up his comfortable life • Began searching for enlightenment • Intense meditation and extreme asceticism • Received enlightenment under the bo tree • The Buddha and his followers • "Turning of the Wheel of the Law," 528 B.C.E. • Organized followers into a community of monks • Traveled, preached throughout north India • Buddhist doctrine: The dharma • The Four Noble Truths • All life involves suffering • Desire is the cause of suffering • Elimination of desire brings an end to suffering • The Noble Eightfold Path brings the elimination of desire • The Noble Eightfold Path (“Setting the wheel in motion”) • Right belief, right resolve, right speech, right behavior • Right occupation, right effort, right contemplation, and right meditation • Religious goal: Nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence

5. APPEAL OF BUDDHISM • Appealed strongly to members of lower castes • Salvation without services of the brahmins • Did not recognize social hierarchies of castes and jati • Appealed to women as all souls considered equal • Less demanding than Jainism, more popular • Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit • Holy sites and pilgrims • The monastic organizations • Spread the Buddhist message, won converts • Could be endowed by others to support the religion • Centers of learning, good works, contemplation • Ashoka's support • Emperor Ashoka became a devout Buddhist, 206 B.C.E. • Banned animal sacrifices in honor of ahimsa • Granted lands to monasteries • Sent missionaries to Bactria and Ceylon

6. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

7. VARIANTS OF BUDDHISM • Early Buddhism • Made heavy demands on individuals • Giving up personal property • Forsaking the search for social standing • Detaching oneself from worldly pleasures • Development of Buddhism • Buddha gradually seen as god by ex-Hindus, in China • The bodhisatva - "an enlightened being" • Monasteries accepted gifts from wealthy individuals • Buddhism became more attractive • The Schism of Buddhism: Was he a god or man? • Mahayana - "the greater vehicle" • Spread to Central, East Asia • Blended in India with Hinduism, which coopted Buddha as a god • Coopted Chinese traditions and Taoist gods in China • Hinayana or Theravada • Continued to view Buddha as human • Practiced in Sri Lanka, parts of India, SE Asia • Buddhism died out in India as it merged with Hinduism

8. RISE OF MAURYAN EMPIRE • Western Intrusions • Intrusions of Persians (520 B.C.E.) • Persians established Indus satrapy • Introduced imperial government, ruling style, coins • The Greek Interlude (c. 327 B.C.E.) • Alexander the Great conquered Persia, Invaded India • Alexander’s withdrawal left a political vacuum • Seleucid Empire succeeded to Alexander’s lands in India • Magadha kingdom filled the vacuumin Ganges • Chandragupta Maurya • As young prince, held hostage by Greeks, escaped back to India • Overthrew the Magadha kingdom in 321 B.C.E. • The founder of the Mauryan empire • Conquered the Greek state in Bactria, Selecuid control of Indus • Chandragupta's empire embraced all of northern India • Chandragupta's government • Government procedures devised by Kautalya, the advisor of the empire • The political handbook, Arthashastra, outlined administrative methods

9. ASHOKA • Ashoka Maurya (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.) • Chandragupta's grandson • The high point of the Mauryan empire • Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga, 260 B.C.E. • Developed remorse and renounced future war • Ruled through tightly organized bureaucracy • Established capital at Pataliputra • Policies of encouraging agriculture and trade • Converted to Buddhism • Established a tolerant rule of righteousness • Sent out missionaries to Sri Lanka, SE Asia, Central Asia • Decline of the Mauryan Empire • Ashoka died in 232 B.C.E. • Heirs were not strong and cost of ruling was expensive • Suffered from acute financial and economic difficulties • High cost for maintaining army and bureaucrats • Debasing the currency, not a effective resolution • The empire collapsed by 185 B.C.E.

10. THE NOMADIC INTERLUDE • Northwestern Kingdoms: 200 BCE to 300 CE • Indo-European nomads enter India from Central Asia • Indo-Greeks came from Bactria c. 180 BCE • Indo-Scythians (Sakas) come from C. Asia c. 80 BCE • Indo-Parthians came from Persia c. 20 CE • Influenced Indian art, commerce, religion • Syncretic blending of Greek culture, Buddhism • Indians saw them as foreigners, impure barbarians • Linked India to the Silk Road, China, Western Asia • Became “Indianized” over time • The Kushans • Indo-Europeans pushed out of China • Took over Scythians, Central Asia, Northwestern India • Dominated Silk Road trade between Mediterranean, China • Adopted Buddhism, blended with Greek, Persian traditions • Gandaran art style was a major artistic period • Helped facilitate spread of Buddhism back to China

11. THE GUPTAS • The Gupta Dynasty: 320 CE to 550 CE • India was controlled by regional kingdoms • The Gupta state rose to power in Magadha • Chandra Gupta founded the new dynasty • Gupta Government • Dynasty was relatively decentralized • Local rulers had great power • Theatre state: ruler had ceremonial functions • Devaraja Cult: ruler was incarnation of a god • An Indian Golden Age • Guptas supported revival of Hinduism • During this age Hinduism took its major form • Guptas supported arts, sciences, mathematics • Gupta decline • Invasion of White Huns weakened the empire • After 5th century C.E., Gupta dynasty ruled in name only • Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India

12. POPULAR HINDUISM • The epics • Mahabharata • A secular poem revised by brahmin scholars • Honored Vishnu, the preserver of the world • The BhagavadGita • A short poetic work within the Mahabharata • A dialogue between the god Vishnu and Prince Arjuna • Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation • Ramayana • Secular story of Rama and Sita was changed into a Hindu story • Shows extent of spread of Hinduism in region • Hindu ethics • Lower demands for achieving salvation • Individuals should meet their responsibilities in detached fashion • Balance of dharma, artha, karma to attain moksha, endsamsara • Popularity of Hinduism • Became more popular than Buddhism; Buddhism too aesthetic • The Guptas helped Hinduism become the dominant religion • Guptas placed Brahmins as lead caste above Kshatriyas

13. ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL • Towns and manufacturing • Towns dotted countryside after 600 B.C.E. • Towns provided manufactured, luxury goods • Long-distance trade • Invasions by Persians helped build trade networks • Trade with China through silk roads of central Asia • Trade in Indian Ocean basin, Africa to Southeast Asia • Spread Buddhism, Hinduism to Central, Southeast Asia • Social and gender relations • Strong patriarchal families; subordination of women to men • Child marriage placed women under control of old men • Development of caste system • New social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared • Individuals of same trade or craft formed a guild; guilds were subcastes, jatis • Functions of guilds: social security and welfare systems • Wealth and social order • Trade and industry brought prosperity to many vaishyas and shudras • Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant