Introduction to Land Mammals

1. Introduction to Land Mammals Streett Coale Education Manager Virginia Zoo in Norfolk

2. So What Makes a Mammal aMammal?

3. Scientific Name (binomial) A universal name for any given species required to be grammatically correct in Latin. Like the Virginia opossum: Didelphis virginiana (Genus name capitalized – species name not capitalized) Four native animals in Virginia have “Virginia” in their scientific names, and five have “Carolina” in their scientific names. For instance: White-tailed deer – Odocoileus virginianus gray Squirrel – Sciurus carolinensis

4. Classification of Mammals Basic levels of classification in the system first devised by Karl Linné (“Carolus Linnaeus” – both capitalized because he was not a whole species) Kingdom – Animalia Phylum – Chordata (But note Subphylum Vertebrata) Class - Mammalia Orders – for instance, Rodentia (rodents) (Native land mammals from 7 orders are found in Virginia) (Families – Most orders are divided into multiple families)

5. How many species and subspecies in Virginia? Marsupial – 1 (Sea Cows* – 1) Rodents – 46 Rabbits & Hares – 7 Shrews and Moles – 18 Bats – 17 Carnivores – 15 Even-toed ungulates -2 (Cetaceans – 1 {commonly}) Most of these are native to Virginia but a few of them are “naturalized” wild species from somewhere else that have been brought here and released intentionally or unintentionally and have adapted. A few “feral” species, that is, domestic animals which are now surviving and breeding in the wild will also be discussed.

6. Endangered Species or Subspecies There are 2 endangered species or subspecies of squirrels in Virginia (listed by both the U.S. and the Commonwealth), one being the Delmarva Peninsula fox squirrel. There are 3 endangered species or subspecies of bats in Virginia (listed by both the U.S. and the Commonwealth), including the Virginia big-eared bat, the state bat of Virginia.

7. Order: Didelphimorphia (part of the Marsupials)Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana virginiana) In contrast to all other North American mammals, the opossum is a marsupial which carries young born in a relatively immature state in a pouch (All other North American species are placentals). Opossums have adapted successfully to the radically altered environment created by dense urban settlements of humans and earned the status of a potential “nuisance species”.

8. Order: Sirenia – Sea CowsManatee(Trichechus manatus latirostris) Florida manatees are occasional visitors to this area including a recent famous individual with a radio collar. Manatees give birth under water and so never come on land. An interesting example from the current thinking about mammal classification. They are considered more closely related to elephants and a variety of other apparently unlike animals than to other aquatic or semiaquatic mammals.

9. Order: Cingulata (formerly: Edentata, then Xenarthra!)Nine-banded armadillo(Dasypus novemcinctus) No member of this order is native to Virginia, but this species does occur in parts of the United States – the nearest state would be Georgia. It has extended its range in the last few decades. Armadillos are among the few living armored mammals and sometimes students are confused as to whether they really are mammals.

10. Order: RodentiaGray Squirrel(Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis) One native mammal you can’t avoid seeing, often can’t avoid hearing, and sometimes have to avoid hitting in broad daylight around Tidewater. Shows basic rodent characteristics, including “heavy duty” incisors that grow throughout its lifetime. Also has arboreal (tree-dwelling) adaptations that have also predisposed it to survive in an urban environment. Remember that there are other species of squirrels whose conservation status is of concern or critical in Virginia – an example of concern about “biodiversity”.

11. Order: RodentiaPungo white-footed mouse(Peromyscus leucopus easti) A subspecies of the white-footed mouse (also known as the wood mouse – shows relevance of scientific name) of local interest. Shows the legal and biological importance of subspecies distinctions (which some stakeholders may not have a lot of patience with). An interesting sign of the white-footed mouse which would probably be easier to observe than a live mouse would be black cherry pits stored in, around, and under logs and tree trunks.

13. The (illegible) #8 with the line to Eastern Virginia shows the range of the subspecies of concern. The species range extends all the way to the Rockies and down to Yucatan.

14. Order: RodentiaMuskrat(Ondatra zibethicus macrodon) “Muskrats build houses of rushes, leaves.sticks and mud . . . and there are many predators, including mink (especially), and raccoon, . . . foxes . . . This species is probably present in all or most counties east of the Blue Ridge Mountains. This species likes marshes, ponds, lakes, low-gradient streams, [with] bank burrows or houses.”

15. Order: RodentiaBeaver(Castor canadensis) Beavers are a conservation success story – they were nearly extirpated from most U.S. habitats but successfully reintroduced. The beaver population in Virginia cannot be characterized by subspecies because they are hybrids from mixed reintroductions. This success has led to some challenging conflicts between beaver behavior and human plans. Because of their dam—building activities and the creation of ponds, beavers change their habitats more than most mammal species. Their felling of young trees for food and construction materials also has a significant impact in itself.

16. Order: RodentiaNutria(Myocastor copyus) “Nutria are large semi-aquatic rodents indigenous to South America. In the 1930’s nutria were imported into Louisiana for the fur farming industry and were released . . . into the Louisiana coastal marshes. Nutria are herbivores and feed particularly on wetland plants. Nutria have caused extensive damage to . . . coastal wetlands due to their feeding activity.” Naturalized exotic

17. Order: RodentiaHouse mouse(Mus musculus) These rodents originated from wild populations in Asia and were spread through Europe long before they were brought by Europeans to the New World. The house mouse is not just a pest in human houses and other buildings. It also spreads and forms invasive colonies that compete with native rodents, although usually in disturbed environments, not undisturbed natural areas. Naturalized exotic

18. Order: RodentiaNorway rat(Rattus norvegicus) These rats are believed to have originated from wild populations in Central Asia (not Norway) and were eventually brought to America in ships at about the time of the Revolution. Norway rats are good swimmers, very good climbers, and completely omnivorous. They can live in sewers, fields, streambanks and marshes as well as populated areas. Naturalized exotic

19. Order: LagomorphaEastern cottontail(Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus) Among other structural differences the tooth structure of hares and rabbits is different from that of rodents, although both orders have chisel-like pairs of incisors. Cottontails are “crepuscular” – most active at dawn and dusk. Signs of their presence include characteristic droppings and also small woody sprigs cut off cleanly and at an angle (with their sharp incisors).

20. Order: LagomorphaMarsh rabbit(Sylvilagus palustris palustris) Tidewater Virginia is the northern end of the marsh rabbit’s range. “When threatened, a marsh rabbit takes to water; it may then float with only eyes and nose exposed” Marsh rabbits inhabit bottomlands, swamps, lake borders, and coastal waterways. They build large, covered nests with rushes, grasses and leaves.

21. Order: Soricomorpha (formerly part of Insectivora)Dismal Swamp southeastern shrew(Sorex longirostris fisheri) Shrews are considered to be among the most “ancestral” of all placental mammals, occupying niches and showing or retaining characteristics of typical mammals of the time when dinosaurs were still a dominant life form. This subspecies has a well-publicized conservation history locally. It was delisted as an endangered species by the U.S. in 2000 after it was discovered to be much more widespread than field research had earlier indicated. Habitat disturbance from the construction of I-664 had to be “mitigated” or compensated for by the construction of new wetland habitat because of the former Endangered status of this shrew. All shrews are voracious predators of invertebrates and some eat up to twice their own weight per day.

22. Order: Soricomorpha (formerly part of Insectivora)Eastern mole(Scalopus aquaticus aquaticus) Despite its scientific name this mole is not aquatic. It was named by Linnaeus himself for its “webbed” feet. (Well, he was a botanist.) In sandy soils the long tunnels made by moles are very prominent when they are tunneling near the surface. They feed mainly on earthworms but also on insects and a variety of other invertebrates.

23. Order: Soricomorpha (formerly part of Insectivora)Star-nosed mole(Condylura cristata cristata) The burrows of star-nosed moles are found in marshes and on stream banks, often with an underwater entrance. These moles feed mainly on aquatic invertebrates, often off stream bottoms. The tentacle-like nose projections are mobile and very sensitive. They are thought to help in navigation and in locating food. Star-nosed moles swim and dive using feet and tail, and even swim under ice to feed during the winter.

24. Order: ChiropteraBig brown bat(Eptesicus fuscus fuscus) Big brown bats are not migratory. “This is one of two species that roosts in caves in the summer, but it is found most often in manmade structures.” “This is the most common bat to enter a house through the fireplace.” There is a recent and current concern about bat conservation in Virginia and throughout the Eastern U.S. because of a poorly understood fatal condition of bats called white-nose syndrome. Caves on property controlled by the Commonwealth were closed to recreational cavers a few years ago to help prevent spreading of the disease by human “vectors”.

25. Order: CarnivoraGray Fox(Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus) “They are found in all areas with appropriate habitat in Virginia. This species prefers upland woods, 'pine' and uses riparian habitats and swamps. This is an opportunistic consumer. The diet varies with the season, and relative abundance of foods. Animal matter is most important in the winter and spring. Insects and fruit are important in the summer and fall. Cottontails are an important food and they eat more birds than the red fox.” Gray foxes have good climbing ability and even forage in trees and take refuge in them.

26. Order: CarnivoraRed fox(Vulpes vulpes fulva) In the southeastern U.S. the red fox is an introduced species, brought from Europe for the sport of fox hunting. It is officially reported throughout Virginia except in Virginia Beach and Chesapeake. Red fox dens are easily noticed if found and only in use from January or February until August. Naturalized exotic Color variations of the “red” fox can include a black phase, a silver phase, and intermediate phases, but always with a long bushy tail with a white tip is an identifying feature.

27. Order: CarnivoraCoyote(Canis latrans) Coyotes have greatly extended their range and the variety of habitats they occupy (including habitats greatly altered by humans) in the last century. They are found across most of Canada and the U.S. and throughout Central America. The extension of the coyote’s range was made possible in part by the extirpation of wolves throughout most of the U.S.

28. Order: CarnivoraBlack bear(Ursus americanus americanus) As adults, black bears are mainly solitary except for females with cubs. They are know to travel over 95 miles in a year, which accounts for some well-publicized incursions into urban areas. Although classified in Carnivora, black bears are omnivores and actually consume more food from plants than from animals. In eastern coastal areas black bears are commonly found in swamps, notably the Great Dismal Swamp in our area.

29. Order: CarnivoraRaccoon(Procyon lotor lotor) Raccoons are omnivores and have adapted very successfully to the drastically altered urban environment, especially where there are still adjacent woodlands or wetlands as in Tidewater. “For the raccoon fleshy fruits and insects are of the highest importance. The animal foods they take include frogs, turtles, mice, eggs and young birds, crayfish, clams, injured waterfowl, insects and garbage at campsites and in the city. Animal matter is major food source in the spring and summer, with fruits and seeds used in the summer, fall, and winter.”

30. Order: CarnivoraBobcat(Lynx rufus rufus) “ . . .it is present throughout Virginia. This species is generally found in heavily forested/mountainous/rugged terrain, but may exist in wooded districts near farms and human habitation. They show little avoidance of any habitat type except in areas highly developed or with dense human populations. . . . The bobcat is a primary predator of small game . . .They take deer mostly in fall and winter just after hunting season (cripples and lost kills). This species is an opportunist, and the more plentiful wild animals become its staple foods.”

31. Order: CarnivoraStriped skunk(Mephistis mephistis negra) Skunks are normally nocturnal and most active at dawn or dusk. Skunks are easily seen and recognized due to their warning colors (unusual for native mammals). The well-known spray, which is also an eye irritant, can be projected up to 15 feet, drift in the air 45 feet, and be smelt for a mile. It is ejected from specialized musk glands. Skunks eat honey, ground-nesting birds and eggs, insects, small mammals, carrion, fruit and other plant matter. Skunks roll caterpillars on the ground before eating to remove their spines, and roll toads to remove toxins.

32. Order: CarnivoraRiver otter(Lontra canadensis lataxina) River otters are completely carnivorous, as is typical for members of the weasel family, feeding mainly on fish but also invertebrates such as crayfish. “The male avoids the area of birth but rejoins the family while the young learn to swim. The family group stays together for 6 months-1 year. They are active any hour (peak feeding dawn-midmorning, evening) and season.”

33. Order: Carnivora (formerly Pinnipedia)Harbor seal(Phoca vitulina) The coasts of the Carolinas are the southern end of the harbor seal’s range. Despite its advanced adaptations to life in the ocean, it still gives birth on land. Harbor seals can dive to 300 ft. and stay submerged for up to 28 minutes. However, they spend a lot of time basking on beaches or rocks especially at low tide.

34. Order: Artiodactyla (Even-toed ungulates)White-tailed deer(Odocoileus virginianus) “The preferred habitat is mixed forest of moderate age, croplands adjacent to forested areas, and early forest successional stages near mature forest. They occur in many habitats from the swamps of the Eastern Shore to the mountains in the west.” Directly or indirectly, humans have become the principal predator of deer, through hunting, car collisions, dog attacks, fences, and train collisions.

35. Order: Artiodactyla Domestic pig (x wild boar?)(Sus scrofa or domesticus) Feral pigs in the eastern U.S. may have multiple origins. European wild boars (the ancestors of domestic pigs) have been released on purpose, but domestic breeds have also been turned loose or survived shipwrecks or escaped. There are no wild pig species native to Virginia or North Carolina. Feral Species Feral pigs may be a source of habitat disturbance in refuges such as locally at False Cape State Park. Occasional legal hunts in the Park are one means of control, and native predators are reportedly helping reduce pig numbers.

36. Order: Perissodactlya (odd-toed ungulates)Feral horse(Equus caballus) There are feral horse populations on several well-known barrier islands and other coastal areas in the eastern U.S. They do create destructive effects. There are no equine species native to the Americas. Feral Species Control of this species by hunting is not an option as it is for feral pigs for reasons related to public opinion. They are moved or tamed.

37. Order: CetaceaBottle-nosed dolphin(Tursiops truncatus) These are the only whales – small toothed whales – commonly observed in the Chesapeake Bay or its tributaries or along the Virginia coast. They congregate seasonally in the summer near Cape Henry and can be observed almost daily from the shores of the lower Bay at that time. Experts have recently concluded that whales share a surprisingly close common ancestor with the hippopotamus.

38. on website http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/vbwt/trail.asp?trail=1 This gives detailed suggested directions for birding and wildlife trails in Virginia. http://library.fws.gov/refuges/BACKBAY.pdf “The varied habitats at Back Bay provide food and cover for mammals such as river otters, white-tailed deer, mink, opossums, raccoons, and the red fox. Nutria . . . Are common on refuge marshlands. Other non-native species include feral pigs and horses. These animals compete with native species for food and cover, and are responsible for negative impacts on the managed environment” Mammal-watching is particularly challenging in some ways. A few native mammals may be apparent and even enter your home, but most are secretive, often nocturnal, and often not audible. As an observer you may learn to become aware of the presence of a certain species of mammal through signs such as tracks and paths, partly consumed or altered vegetation, droppings, burrowing activity, evidence of food storage, or characteristic movement in the water or undergrowth. A lot of the basic information in this presentation was obtained or verified at the Dept. of Game and Inland Fisheries website: http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/wildlife/information/?t=2 To learn about the environmental signs, habits, and ranges of mammals, an up-to-date authoritative field guide will be a big help.

39. Any volunteer work involving restoring or protecting natural habitat, especially on extensive protected lands anywhere in Tidewater will directly aid in the conservation of native mammal species. From time to time we have an intensive need for manpower for wetland restoration at the Zoo but no projects are current. Any interpretive projects or opportunities on protected lands or other lands in a relatively natural state can include information about and appreciation for relevant mammal species. When training is completed (subject to Chapter review and approval) if you want to directly help with the rehabilitation of individual wild mammals you can contact the Wildlife Response network. Suzanne McBride has said it is OK to contact here directly, or through the Wildlife Response hotline at 543-7000. Opportunities to support their work have included manning the hotline, participating in presentations, and, with simple legal clearance not involving a rehabber’s license, transport of injured and rescued animals. By this time there may be a chance to aid in the construction and operation of Wildlife Response center – a dedicated facility for wildlife rehab.