Representation in Congress

1. Representation in Congress

2. Sex and Race • Congress- house- has become less white and less male in last 60 years (since 1950) but the senate has changed more slowly • Despite small number of minorities they can sometimes exercise great influence

3. Incumbency • 19th century most congressmen served one term • By 1950s being a congressmen had become a career and most politicians stayed in office prompting public criticism and demands for term limits (which failed to pass) • Change in 1992 and 1994 with a lot of new members elected • 1990 census and redistricting of lines • Voter disgust at Washington • Republican victory in 1994 • Marginal districts- close elections where winner gets less than 55% of vote • Safe districts- win by wide margins (more than 55% of vote) • House districts have become less secure than senate • Different reasons scholars debate about why incumbents have such advantage in reelection

4. Party • 1933-1998 there were 33 congresses (they convene every 2 years) • In most of these the Democrats dominated (especially the House) • Some argue (and there is evidence to support this claim) that the Dems. Dominate because Democratic controlled state legislatures drew boundaries favoring dem. Candidates (even though Rep. often got more of the popular vote than they were receiving in seats) • The above isn’t enough to explain why dems. Dominated until 1994 because it is unrealistic for them to control all the places where redistricting happens • Dems do well in low turnout districts while reps. Do well in high turnout districts • Some argue that the dems have been more successful at running candidates who focus on local issues and get the support of locals • 1994 change • General dislike of Washington • Shift of south to republican party • Conservative coalition

5. Determining Fair Representation • Initially some states didn’t have districts- all reps were at large reps. • 2 problems • Malapportionment- districts of unequal size- citizen’s votes worth different amounts • Gerrymandering • 4 problems to solve in deciding who gets represented in the House • Establishing the total size of the House • Allocating seats in the House among the states • Determining the seize of congressional districts within states • Determining the shape of those districts • Congress decides the first two and the state the last two • 1911 Congress capped the size of the House at 435 • 1964 Supreme court – “one person, one vote” required that districts be drawn to fairly represent people so everyone’s vote was weighted the same

6. Majority-Minority Districts • Congressional districts designed to make it easier for minority citizens to elect minority representatives • 1993- Shaw v. Reno- 5-4 ruling Supreme Court –”redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the equal protection clause. On the other hand, bodies doing redistricting must be conscious of race to the extent that they must ensure compliance with the Voting Rights Act”

7. Winning the Primary • Candidate has to amass a certain number of signatures to get on the ballot • It is unusual for an incumbent to lose a primary • Neither parties, then, nor voters seem to be able to punish congressmen • Sophomore surge- most congressmen become popular in their districts quickly because they use their offices to run personal campaigns (as opposed to party campaigns) • 2 effects of way people get elected: • Legislators tied closely with local concerns • Party leaders have weak influence over them • This translates to policy because when he/she gets elected and serves on a committee (i.e. infrastructure) then the district is more likely to benefit from it • Since most want to be reelected they tend to favor passing legislation that benefits their district rather than on larger issues like foreign policy (are they representatives or trustees?)

8. Representational theoryof Representation • Members want to be reelected, so they vote to please constituents • Civil rights laws – reps with significant African Americans in their districts won’t oppose civil rights bills • Also some positive correlation between voting on social welfare issues • Constituency influences important in senate votes but no comparable done on House • Sometimes the reps are conveniently out of town so they can avoid voting on a controversial issue • One problem with this theory is that public opinion is not always known/strong

9. Organizational Theory • When voting on matters where constituency interests not at stake, members of congress take cues from colleagues and the principal cue is the party

10. Attitudinal Theory • Ideology of the member of Congress affects how he/she votes • House opinions come closer to the average voter, whereas Senate opinions don’t and sometimes senators represent two different parts of a state and can have totally opposite views • Democratic party more divided • As of late, more ideological candidates have been elected to office and the attitudinal theory seems more accurate • This leads to polarization within the congress and much more backstabbing and bickering among members