What is virtue ethics?

What is virtue ethics? Virtue theory is different from these approaches It concentrates on the idea of the human character and asks how you can be a better person. Ethikos – concerned with the ethical character of an individual rather than the individual actions. It is neither teleological nor deontological. Because it does not focus on actions or rules. It is concerned with the personality of the person. Their moral character.

The branches of ethics DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS THE MOTIVE DETERMINES THE MORALITY MOTIVE ACTION END TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS THE END RESULT DETERMINES THE MORALITY VIRTUE ETHICS IT IS THE STATE OF THE PERSON MAKING THE ACTION WHICH IS IMPORTANT

What is virtue ethics? Most theories concentrate on defining principles by which we should act. Virtue theory is interested in defining good people and the qualities that make them good. Utilitarian's and deontologists think that right behaviour comes BEFORE right character. Virtue theory puts this the other way round – right character comes BEFORE right behaviour. YOU HAVE TO HAVE THE RIGHT CHARACTER IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT ACTIONS. Virtue ethics is non-normative. It does not give laws to follow rather identifies the correct character to have and assumes that the person with the correct character will act correctly.

What is virtue ethics? We should be less concerned with action and consequences and much more concerned with the character of the moral agent. The question “what is it right or obligatory to do?” is not the only question. “How should we be?” Matters too because it is only by becoming better people that we will do the right thing. While other ethical theories concentrate simply on the process of moral decision making, virtue theory is concerned about the process of how to become a moral person. Once you have become a moral person – you will do the right thing.

What is virtue ethics? The roots of virtue theory are in Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle modern important contributors to virtue theory are: Elizabeth Anscombe Alasdair Macintyre Phillipa foot We will discuss each in turn focusing specifically on Aristotle and MacIntyre's adjustments. foot Macintyre anscombe Aristotle

“to understand a theory you need to know its context.” Alisdair Macintyre

The beginnings Ancient Greek philosophy is dominated by two philosophers. These men are called the fathers of philosophy. Both were crucial in the development of western and middle eastern thought for the last two thousand years. Their reach includes, mathematics, philosophy, ethics, politics, aesthics and many more.

Plato points to the sky – highlighting his concern with the metaphysical realm that can only be discovered through philosophical investigation. Aristotle points to the ground – highlighting his concern with the physical realm that can be discovered through science. Metaphysical – the realm beyond the physical. The TRUE reality.

The beginnings Aristotle’s science shaped his ethics. “Good” he said can also be defined in terms of either; outcome (teleological) or motive where the reasons for the action define its being good or otherwise) + = Teleological Right action/ person deontological

Unique? The beginnings For Aristotle something is “Good” if it fulfils its purpose. A good knife is one which is sharp and which cuts well. What type of theory does this make virtue ethics? this is based on his idea of CAUSE and PURPOSE

Aristotle posited four causes for anything and everything. MATERIAL CAUSE – the matter from which the thing is made from. The wood of a chair. EFFICIENT CAUSE – the agent that brings something about. The carpenter FORMAL CAUSE – the kind of thing that something is. The chair shape. FINAL CAUSE – the goal or purpose that a thing moves towards. To sit on

This is the basis for roman catholic morality and the key ethical theory of NATURAL LAW goodness Because everything has a final cause it is possible to tell what is “good” by looking at what the purpose of a thing is. It is good because we have achieved the final purpose. Aristotle believed the final purpose of a person was eudaimonia Good for Aristotle therefore, is anything that helps a person achieve eudaimonia. What’s that then?

The final purpose... Achieving the final purpose for a thing is ‘GOOD’ for that thing. Achieving the final purpose for a human is good for that human. A human life that is geared towards achieving the final purpose is a good life. A person who strives to achieve this goodness is a moral person.

eudamonia Aristotle called the final purpose for a human Eudaimonia. This is the greatest good for a human. To achieve the best life you should aim your life towards this. All human life for Aristotle is purposeful. We aim our life towards things. Some of these things are not good for us. Eudaimonia as the ultimate good should be the aim for us all.

eudamonia Eudaimonia roughly translated is happiness, however the concept is much more than that. A better translation is ‘human flourishing’ – the state a human must be in to fully flourish as an individual. The person who has achieved eudaimonia will act completely morally, by choice, and will also want to act morally. They will choose the right actions but also want those same actions.

eudamonia Eudamonia is a state of action rather than inaction. It cannot be dipped into – you must work hard in order to achieve it. A person in eudamonia is fully content in their life and acts morally all the time because they want to act morally. It also involves reason. This is because reason is unique to humans and eudaimonia is the greatest human achievement. You must BE A THINKER in order to be eudaimon

The final cause of humanity This concept of eudaimonia is the final cause for humanity. This is because it is the most fulfilling position to be in as a human as should be the final goal of all action. If this concept can actually be achieved is a difficult measure. It is unsure whether this is an ideal or an achievable goal.

The final cause of humanity Reaching the end goal of eudamonia takes more than just a personal effort. A central quote to Aristotle’s moral philosophy is the quote from Nichomachean ethics.

“Man is a political and social animal.” Aristotle

The final cause of humanity The greatest good for a person is for them to exist in the social and political realm. Humans are social animals and as such need to interact with other humans. You have to be involved in social activities to be moral. You also have to interested in the good of the community. True happiness lies in the interactions you have with others.

The centrality of eudamonia This description of human nature is of particular importance for virtue ethics. The concept of eudamonia and the end goal of humanity forms virtue ethics in to a life study. The virtuous life is an ongoing project that you must work at all times. Its affect on the individual is complete and your life must be governed by it.

The goal of humanity The goal is to achieve eudamonia. Eudamonia is pursued for its own merits rather than as an means to an end. “Eudamonia is an end in itself.”

The goal of humanity We achieve eudamonia through practise and education. We are like Archers aiming for a target of goodness. Like any good archer you first need instruction. Then you need practise. Our instruction comes from education and our parents. We practice virtuous characteristics of life. Aristotle believed that by practising virtuous personality traits, such as; Charity, Justice, we would eventually become like those characteristics. Topic of next lesson

What is a virtue? A Virtue is a moral excellence. a character trait or quality valued as being good. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting individual and collective well-being, and thus good by definition. What are some examples?

What is not a virtue? The opposite of virtue is vice. Vice are characteristics or personality traits that do not promote individual well-being These are negative and should be avoided. You should aim to get rid of them in your life leaving more space for virtuous actions. Examples?

How do you work out what a virtue is? Virtue ethics can be seen as the ethics of the average. It decides which is the correct moral virtue by deciding the middle point between two extremes. For Aristotle there were 12 moral virtues that are qualities of character such as; courage, liberality, temperance and modesty.

How do you work out what a virtue is? These moral virtues lie between two extremes. There are no two situations the same so in each situation you have to work out the middle point between the two extremes. You have to use your reason and thought to make the correct choice.

The virtues He identified 12 moral virtues which are the middle point between two moral vices. The vices are in EXCESS or DEFICIENCY of the virtue. EXCESS------------VIRTUE-------------DEFICIENCY So courage is one of the virtues. DEFICIENCY If I do not have enough I am coward VICE – if I am excessively courageous then I may become rash.

Courage in practice A soldier in Iraq sees his mate fall in battle. He could: ACTION EXCESS/DEFICIENCY VICE/VIRTUE Leave him Go chasing after him without any regard for his own safety Which act rests on which end of the scale? What is another example? Organise a plan using other members of his team to rescue the fallen soldier.

The doctrine of the mean This theory of middle point is called the doctrine of the mean. Because virtue ethics is concerned with personal moral journey it gives the individual the freedom to act and to make the choice. The only person responsible for the moral choice is the individual. What does presuppose then? What theory does this tie in with?

The virtues

habit Virtues will only develop naturally in a minority of people. Therefore the doctrine of the mean helps people to work out what is the correct action they should take. People need to be EDUCATED in the virtues and the doctrine of the mean. Then they need to practise using the doctrine of the mean to help them work out the correct thing to do.

“Excellence is an art won by training and habituation. We do not act rightly because we have virtue or excellence, but we rather have those because we have acted rightly. We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit.” Aristotle

Four groups of people Virtuous people: enjoy doing good so face no moral dilemma. Continent people: do the virtuous thing most of the time but have to overcome moral dilemma. Habit is important that Aristotle believed there were four groups of people in society. Incontinent people: face moral conflict but usually choose a vice. Vicious people: do not attempt to be virtuous.

So what? Virtuous people: The virtuous person does not need help The other three groups of people need to practise the virtues. Continent people: Incontinent people: Vicious people:

So what? By using the doctrine of the mean and having the proper education so as to understand the importance of virtues anybody can become virtuous. Because Aristotle assumes the existence of freedom he believes that anyone who puts in the effort (and receives the correct education) can achieve goodness.

actions Aristotle believed that every human action was directed towards an aim. I get up in the morning because I want to go to work. I go to work because I want to earn a living and have a career. I want earnings and career so that I can have a good life.

actions These aims can be separated into superior and subordinate aims. Getting up in the morning is subordinate to earning a living. Ultimately everything is subordinate to the supreme good – happiness or ................

aims People have different ideas of happiness. Some seek: It is the last who are to be the best. They seek things for their own purposes. Pleasure - hedonists Honour – serve the community (politicians) Contemplation – philosophers

What exactly is meant by philosopher is not known. It could be an academic philosopher but it is more likely to be a person who contemplates life. Thinks deeply and is not overly concerned with material goods. The philosopher Aristotle picks the philosopher because he thinks that they exercise key intellectual virtues than enable a person to steer their life towards eudamonia. People cannot be virtuous without being a philosopher and as a result they can not reach eudaimonia. HEDONIST POLITICIAN INCONTINENT LIFE EUDAMONIA PHILOSOPHER VIRTUOUS LIFE EUDAMONIA

The virtues He singles out five intellectual virtues which the philosopher uses to apply the moral virtues and steer their life in the correct direction. All of these can be developed through practice and education. Prudence or practical wisdom Common sense Intuitive intelligence Good predictions Wisdom Sensible Scientific knowledge Interest in knowledge Craft or art - productive Artistic or something productive

The importance of the virtues He spends more time on prudence that any other. A prudent person deliberates well both about that which is good in specific areas but also what it means to live well in general. Prudence gives insights into the truth about human action. Although possibly not considered virtues today they were important for working what the golden mean was in a situation. Essential for not only being virtuous but attaining eudamonia.

demonstration The saying “The road to hell is paved with good intentions” demonstrates the importance of the intellectual virtues. I might show great courage in sacrificing myself but in doing so I may go about things the wrong way. You may do a string of good actions but unless you understand the direction you should be taking them you may end up on the wrong path.

The philosopher The philosopher can be imagined like a captain of a ship. Using their intellectual virtues they steer their life into the right direction. And are more likely to achieve the greatest good in life. They are more likely to reach eudaimonia.

OVERview All actions have an aim Some actions are subordinate to others All actions should be subordinate to the final purpose of a human Their are different understanding of the final purpose. Hedonist, politician, philosopher In order to steer your life in the right direction you should use the intellectual virtues. The philosopher is better equipped to steer their life towards eudaimonia.

Virtue ethics highjacked

aquinas During the 13th Century Aquinas was introduced to the writings of Aristotle. Through his Christian writings four of Aristotle's virtues became known as the cardinal values. These are; Prudence Justice Fortitude Temperance They are related to one another and are needed for each other.

high jacked Later appeared the ‘seven cardinal vices’ or the ................ Five of which appeared in Aristotle’s list. These were considered wrong for the person and society. They are still in use today. This development of Aristotle demonstrates the importance of his theory for understanding virtue.

aquinas Christianity is centred around helping other people. The Christian adoption of these virtues demonstrate how important virtues are for helping people as a community. As mentioned earlier Aristotle stressed the importance of the community in moral development. The best people in society are interested in the development of the community as a whole. A person who achieves eudaimonia will be interested in developing the community as a whole. Helping them reach the end goal.

relativity As we know Aristotle (despite his physics) was not an absolutist about morality. He understood virtues relatively. He claimed (unlike Plato) that there is no sense of absolute good or evil beyond our world. As such the virtues of one city may differ from another depending upon the needs of that society. For example a society may be at war; as such courage and bravery would be highly prized.

relativity Different cities have different ideas of ends for the world. In each city different virtues aim towards that individual societies understanding of FINAL PURPOSE In each society most people have an understanding of the virtues. In these communities the philosopher matters the most. Why?

The philosopher Because they use their intellectual virtues for the good of the community. They can help the educate the individuals in the virtues. They can help guide the politicians to the correct superior and subordinate aims to better society. They can help convince the hedonists which are appropriate superior and subordinate aims in life.

review Every human action has an aim. There are superior and subordinate aims in life. The end aim of humans is happiness. There are three types of people in society. Politician, hedonist and Philosopher The best is the philosopher because they use the intellectual virtues and can understand the best aims to reach EUDAMONIA. The importance of virtue is explained through their use today – cardinal virtues/vices Aristotle understood virtue relatively as all societies are different. The philosopher is the best for understanding how society can advance.

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foot Macintyre anscombe Aristotle

Learning objective To know and understand the strengths of virtue ethics Key words Non-normative Humanistic Liberal Key question What is a virtue?

OVERview Non-normative Culturally relative Liberal Humanistic Fits in with religion

ONE : NON-NORMATIVE Virtue theory is non-normative. It does not give a prescriptive rule of laws that you should follow. This gives more freedom to the individual and the agent is in complete control of their own morality. People are able to create their own laws for living. Rather than looking for rules it looks at what it is to be human.

ONE : NON-NORMATIVE This freedom is essential for a person to flourish. Without being able to choose what to do and take control of their own lives a person cannot exercise the intellectual virtues and cannot become moral. It is for a person to make the choice to find the right thing to do.

ONE: NON-NORMATIVE Examples What idea of freedom does this tie into? Who said that absolute freedom is difficult to cope with?

two: culturally relative Aristotle said that virtues are culturally relative. Virtues are specific to a culture and one set of virtues may not fit correctly with another culture. This means that no one culture is superior to another – all cultures are morally equivalent.

two : culturally relative This is beneficial for our society because it means that any society in the world can use virtue ethics. They just need to identify their goals for themselves and work out the correct virtues. Examples: can you think of a virtue that is relevant for us today?

three : liberal and accepts mistakes Virtue theory takes into consideration the whole person. They are therefore, not judged simply on one mistake rather their whole life is taken into consideration. As long as you are making an effort to change your personality and are attempting to practise the virtues then you are doing the right thing. Mistakes are tolerated.

three : liberal and accepts mistakes As a person develops they move through different stages of life. It is possible for a person to move from vicious to virtuous over the course of their life. It is therefore has a positive view of human nature. It is concerned with reform and the view that a person can change their very nature.

Four : humanistic Virtue theory does not seek justification for its morality from an absolute source. It does not need a God to justify why to be moral. Rather it gets its backing from humans and is therefore, a humanistic theory. this means that it has a lot of attraction for non-religious people.

Four : humanistic Anybody can follow this theory. It has great potential in British society where there is a moral vacuum caused by the decline in religion and rise in postmodernism. The more people that become virtuous the better our society will become. It can also give direction and guidance to those that are lost, adrift in empty space.

five : fits in with a religious point of view As well as being humanistic it also allows for a religious understanding of the theory. As you can choose for your virtuous example a religious person or you can be educated in religious virtues. Because it focuses on the type of person you should be a person could aim to be more “Christ-like” As well as that many of the modern concepts of virtue have come from Christian writers and commentators over the years. examples

five : fits in with a religious point of view The important acronym for a Christian, WWJD becomes important here. What would Jesus do? A Christian can therefore stay a Christian but also be interested in virtue and seek to maximise the virtues that Christianity cherish.

five : fits in with a religious point of view In addition the synergy created between Christian theology and Aristotelian thought by Aquinas demonstrates shows an important relationship between the two theories. Virtue is essential for modern Christian thought. Virtues of compassion, faith, patience, love and forgiveness are essential to its sense of morality.

review Non-normative Culturally relative Liberal Humanistic Fits in with religion

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Learning objective To know and understand the weaknesses of virtue ethics Key words Ancient values Prohibitive Judgement Key question What is a virtue?

OVERview Non-normative Ancient values Judgement Foot ELITIST

homework You should EVALUATE the main points of view. Give four arguments – two for and two against. Make sure you explain each point fully, developing it with evidence and linking the paragraphs together to fully evaluate the point. Include a person conclusion. “Virtue ethics had no practical application to modern ethics” discuss 20 marks Use the reading pack to help you.

one : non-normative One of the strengths is its weakness. Virtue theory does not give you a list of prohibitive acts nor does it give you a method of formulating such a list. Therefore, how do you punish people who act immorally? Virtue ethics claims to be interested in the society but how can a society develop when there are no rules?

one : non-normative We talked about how virtue ethics would help our society overcome its moral vacuum. However if there are no moral rules or normative structure how can you help people become moral? Those people that are lost will remain lost if there is nothing for them to follow. Will they ever reach eudaimonia? What is the best stage they can achieve if all they do is follow rules?

two : ancient values Are ancient values really applicable today? Can we really apply Aristotle today? Ancient civilisations were very different from our own. What was good for them might not necessarily be good for us? Even with the additions of Aquinas are these religious virtues relevant to today’s society? Examples.

“All paid jobs absorb and degrade the mind.” two : ancient values As well as these virtues not being applicable it may be that this structure is not possible for the modern age. Life is not geared towards the contemplative mind. We have to work and if we can never achieve virtue if we work then what is the point?

three : judgement Virtue theory creates real problems for judgement of people. If there are four types of people surely the person who acts immoral by accident whilst trying to be virtuous is better than the person who is not trying at all. If this is the case how do we know they are trying to act virtuously? It is difficult to decide who is virtuous, as external acts that appear virtuous on the outside may have doubtful inner motives which cannot be perceived and vice-versa.

three : judgement This links to the complaint of non-normativity. How can you create a society where there are rules and government if there is no set rules on how to live?

four : foot Using virtue ethics you are supposed to aim you life towards the greatest good. A sense of personal flourishing. My wisdom should benefits both myself and others with whom I have dealings. However, in cases of charity and justice it may be that I must sacrifice my own interests for those of others. I may have to give up luxuries so that the basic needs of others can be met.

four : foot Sometimes the right thing for me is not the good for me. There seem to be situations where there is an absolute sense of goodness. In which there is always a correct sense of morality. This refutes Aristotle’s claim that goodness is dependent on humanity.

FIVE : ELITIST Virtue ethics can be considered quite elitist. Aristotle claims that a person who does not have a formal education can never reach true morality. This is because they have not been educated in the virtues. It is also because they have not had the correct character building experiences

FIVE : ELITIST It seems that this is not quite true. it seems wrong that just because someone is uneducated and poor that they cannot be moral. These people in order to make a moral action will have to overcome a stronger moral dilemma and surely this should be credited.

OVERview Non-normative Ancient values Judgement Foot ELITIST

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Learning objective To know and understand the modern development of virtue ethics by Alasdair Macintyre Key words Internal External Good will Key question What is a virtue?

OVERview Modern ethical study has lost its way. It is too concerned with normative rules or the reality of those normative rules. (metaethics) This has not helped fill the moral vacuum of society. Anscombe believed that Virtue ethics was the only solution to the moral vacuum in society. Macintyre believed the same thing. the best way to fill the moral vacuum is to chart our moral virtues. Throughout history they have been important because they help ordinary people be moral. Virtues must be based on good will. There are internal and external goods. The virtues help us overcome the effects of the three groups of people.

The 20th century revival Since the enlightenment ethics has been dominated by normative theories. These theories give a moral answer to a problem based on different circumstances. Virtue ethics before the 20th century had died out. however it was noticed that there was a distinct gap in the moral mindset that normative ethics was not fulfilling. A fresh approach was needed.

anscombe Elizabeth Anscombe initiated the modern revival of virtue theory. She was critical of moral theories which allowed any moral act of any kind if it brought about some good end. She argued that consequentialist thinking has come to dominate much of modern philosophy.

anscombe “The concepts of obligation, and duty – moral ‘ought’, ought to be jettisoned.” These are part of ethics which no longer has a basis as many are based around the idea of a creator God which we have got rid of. She said the idea of ethics defined as some legalistic principles (rules) needs to be changed. Ethics is too concerned with this act and that act being immoral.

anscombe This was just as true for utilitarian ideas of the greatest good for the greatest number as it was for Kant’s deontological categorical imperative. Anscombe proposed a different way of studying ethics. We should think about the idea of a virtue and human flourishing, referring back to Plato and Aristotle. further development was necessary in understanding what we mean by virtue.

History is important In 1981, Alasdair Macintyre (left) wrote a book called ‘After Virtue’ in which he argued that we should give serious consideration to Aristotle’s theory. In his book, he traced the history of virtue ethics and tried to establish a system of virtue ethics for the modern age. His basic complaint was that modern ethics put too much emphasis on reason and not enough stress on people, their characters and the contexts of their lives.

Homeric virtues Macintyre noticed that as societies developed 2,500 years ago, so different virtues developed too. In the age of Homer a poet who told the story of (the Iliad and the Odyssey), the following virtues were paramount; Physical strength Courage Cunning Friendship These are known as the HOMERIC VIRTUES

Athenian virtues Eventually, As cities (the polis) developed, life slowly became more civilized. Aristotle developed his theory of virtues for the city of Athens and his virtues became known as the Athenian Virtues. They were (briefly) as follows: Courage Friendship Justice: retributive (getting what you deserve) and distributive (making sure that the goods of society are fairly distributed) Temperance Wisdom The emphasis on strength and cunning, needed in time of war, was gone. Macintyre argued that the Athenian virtues of Aristotle were the most complete.

The problem For Macintyre, the problems with ethics began during the Enlightenment, a period of time during the 17th and 18th Centuries when Science became more important for discovering truth. It was thought that a single, rational cause for morality could be discovered and thinkers such as Hume and Kant attempted to do this.

The virtues Macintyre realised that whilst the theorists in universities were trying to work morality out, society still needed virtuous people in everyday life people who run jumble sales to raise money for the local hospital for example. Macintyre argued that despite the theories of people like Kant and Hume, the virtues have lived on. What’s more, society dependsfor its very existence, upon people who exhibit the virtues.

What was his theory then? Macintyre argued that living a virtuous life depended upon getting into the habit of being moral and of striving towards being virtuous He argued that this can give life an overall purpose and meaning. The virtues for Macintyre, are any human quality which helps us to achieve the ‘goods’ in life. HABIT INTENTION

Courage: courage is very important as it helps us to face up to challenges that may come our way. His virtues Wisdom: this is not knowledge: it is the ability to know how to act in the right way in particular situations. Justice: this is a very important virtue. Justice is fairness and it is the art of giving someone what they deserve or merit. To be unjust is to be unfair. Hope: being optimistic. Industriousness: hard work. Temperance: this prevents us from acting rashly; losing our temper for example. Patience

GOOD WILL Underneath the virtues must be the good will of the person. To be virtuous, one must desire to do virtuous things, rather than do them involuntarily. An act is not virtuous if it is not intended. Is this similar to Aristotle?

Internal and external goods Macintyre also used the idea of internal and external goods, a version of which is seen in Natural Law. An internal good is specific to the activity itself; for example, giving money to charity results in helping others and developing a sense of satisfaction. It is an necessary part of what it means to do this action. example?

Internal and external goods An external good, is a good that is not specific to the act. It is something good or moral that comes out of doing the activity or action. It is called ‘external’ because it comes out of doing the activity For example, when giving to charity, your example may inspire others to do the same. Other examples?

vice Macintyre also warned that being virtuous does not prevent you from being open to vices. He gives the example of a great violinist who could be vicious, or a chess player who could be mean spirited. The vices would prevent these people from achieving maximum virtue.

THE MOST IMPORTANT VIRTUES Macintyre suggests that the three most important virtues are: justice courage honesty We can only achieve moral excellence through practising these three. They are core virtues that help to prevent organisations and institutions from becoming morally corrupt. It is largely through institutions that traditions, cultures and morality spread: if these institutions are corrupt, then vices become widespread.

Three people in society Alisdair MacIntyre said that in today's society we find ourselves in a ‘moral vacuum’. The arguments between consequentialist and deontologists has left society confused and devoid of virtue. He believes ‘concepts of truth and rationality have become, as it were free floating’ He believes that it is desires not morals that are driving our choices. MacIntyre says that three archetypal characters now strut our moral stage. These are the bureaucratic manager, the rich aesthete, and the Therapist.

Our society THE RICH AESTHETE This man, woman or couple, live for the more exciting and exotic pleasures of life. We see their images, glamorous, thin (women) aging (men - but with the obligatory trophy wife 30 years younger), in expensive homes or in exotic holiday destinations, plastered and all over 'Hello' magazine - Posh and Becks Macintyre is talking about the 'image as icon'. It's their image in the eye of society that embodies the Rich Aesthete. THE THERAPIST the Therapist is necessary to balance the failed aspirations and thwarted hopes that the BM and RA would inevitably cause!! The rise in the beauty business in Britain and the number of cosmetics, bath products, and 'spiritual' treatments, which claim to have therapeutic value. The society we have created teaches us to value others less and ourselves more. Therefore, we need Therapists to conceal the emptiness and meaninglessness of life from us. TV chat show and game show host are examples. Three types of people: THE BUREAUCRATIC MANAGER the sort of person to be to get a job in business This person is efficient at using resources and people to achieve his/her own aims and objectives. People and resources are all dispensable to the Bureaucratic Manager.

The effect The bureaucratic manager is driven by profit, he has no regard for his employees and his colleagues and will forsake anyone to ensure hi the shareholders have sufficient profits. He may be a loving father but at work he be leaves his morals at home. MacIntyre condemns this as he believes like Aristotle that a holistic attitude to life is essential in order to achieve ultimate happiness or ‘eudaimonia’. The Rich Aesthete could be compared to the Beckham’s or J-Lo. They are driven by hedonistic pleasures. They are always looking for the next new product or fashion and this is all they are concerned with. The Therapist is much like Graham Norton. He broadcasts regularly ensuring that the nation is anaesthetised to morality.

Activities Compile a list of virtues suitable for the 21st century. Use the table on p27 and the paragraphs above to help you. Decide on the ‘vice of deficiency’ and ‘vice of excess’ for each of your virtues. In one paragraph for each, describe what you think a complete virtuous life and a completely virtuous society would look like.

Activities Not long ago it was reported that a policeman had transformed his town, reducing antisocial behaviour by half. He set up a night school to teach children about medieval notions of respect and chivalry.More than a hundred children took the course which the policeman said instilled a sense of personal pride, of mannerly and compassionate behaviour and a respect for others. Devise a course of a ‘virtue club’. What would the course do?

Review Modern ethical study has lost its way. It is too concerned with normative rules or the reality of those normative rules. (metaethics) This has not helped fill the moral vacuum of society. Anscombe believed that Virtue ethics was the only solution to the moral vacuum in society. Macintyre believed the same thing. the best way to fill the moral vacuum is to chart our moral virtues. Throughout history they have been important because they help ordinary people be moral. Virtues must be based on good will. There are internal and external goods. The virtues help us overcome the effects of the three groups of people.

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Learning objective To be able to evaluate the success of Macintyre against the criticisms charged and understand the differences with Aristotle. Key words Community Key virtues Relativity Key question What is a virtue?

OVERview Similarities Differences Strengths weaknesses

Similarities with Aristotle Virtues are relative Being virtuous does not prevent vice Good will – you must desire to be virtuous to be virtuous. Relativity of virtue Importance of the community List of virtues are smaller. Mixes moral and intellectual Key virtue list is the same. Internal and external goods – Aristotle would not have separated them. Three people in society are different. Relates to ethical theory to business practices. similarities differences

Strengths and weaknesses Non-normative Culturally relative Liberal Humanistic Fits in with religion Non-normative Ancient values Judgement foot elitist strengths weaknesses

Activities Look through some recent news stories which reflect virtues or vices. Try to produce a picture of modern life in terms of the virtues and vices evident.

homework You should EXPLAIN the main points of view. Make sure you show an understanding of the diversity of belief and reasons for diversity. Make sure you explain each point fully, developing it with evidence and linking the paragraphs together to create a full picture of the different points of view. Explain the similarities and differences between Aristotle and Macintyre's conception of virtue 30 marks Use the reading pack to help you.

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Learning objective To understand Phillip Foots adjustments and the strengths and weaknesses of her argument Key words Necessary good Desire Excess and deficiency Key question What is a virtue?

OVERview What are the Benefits of virtue? What is a virtue? Virtue is located in the will Wisdom is an important virtue for a good life Virtues are corrective to societies ills The most moral person is one who overcomes a dilemma Can a villain be virtuous? Strengths and weaknesses Similarities and differences

“Nobody can get on well if he lacks courage, and does not have some measure of temperance and wisdom, while communities where justice and charity are lacking are apt to be wretched places to live, as Russia was under the Stalinist terror, or Sicily under the mafia.” Phillipa Foot

Benefit Virtues are beneficial for society The question is who do the benefits go to? Does the benefit of the virtue go to the person with the virtue or to the people who are affected by that person? The benefit Goes to: In the case of some of the virtues the answer seems clear. Courage, temperance and wisdom benefit both the man who has these dispositions and the other people as well.”

Benefit The benefit goes to: In the cases of justice and charity, the answer is not so clear. It seems as if the charitable person benefits the other more than himself. It may even be that the charitable person loses in the performance of the virtue. Virtues are in general beneficial characteristics, and indeed ones that a human being needs to have, for his own sake and that of his fellows.

Virtue “Virtue is not, like a skill or an art, a mere capacity: it must actually engage the will. Virtue must be a pursuit. It must be something that you are actively engaged in. You must desire to be virtuous and actively seek that out.

Virtue Virtues are beneficial characteristics and things that a human being needs to have. These compliment the physical things they need. There are excellences of body – strength, health There are excellences of will – charity, justice. You can judge somebody by their moral intentions. A scoundrel is still a scoundrel even if he is strong and health.

Virtue Virtues relate to a persons inner most desires. They are our intentions and our wish to act. Virtues are a mean between two vices. Deficiency and excess Virtues are a corrective against these temptations. Similarities to other areas of study? What is the presumption?

Virtue is in the Will Foot explains that excellences of the mind and body are not what we call virtuous. “It is the will that is good in a man of virtue.” A man may have virtuous qualities but he must have good intentions in order to have a good life. What does this mean?

Virtue is in the Will “It is primarily by his intentions that a man’s moral dispositions are judged.” In many cases, however, it is not merely intention but performance that is judged. Virtue may require not only performance but attitude. “Wisdom, as I see it, has two parts.”

Wisdom: the Virtue One of the most important virtues in order to ensure a good life is wisdom. “In the first place the wise man knows the means to certain good ends; and secondly he knows how much particular ends are worth.” He can determine the right thing to do with the end goal in mind.

Wisdom: the Virtue Wisdom is not cleverness, but rather “is related only to good ends and to human life in general.” Wisdom is available to any person, not just those with special training or innate cleverness. For the first part of wisdom, “the man who is wise does not merely know how to do good things… but must also want to do them.”

Wisdom: the Virtue “What we can see is that one of the things a wise man knows and a foolish man does not is that such things as social position, and wealth, and the good opinion of the world, are too dearly bought at the cost of health or friendship or family ties.” The wise person knows what to do with their life. They are able to discern what the most moral situations are

Virtues as Correctives Virtues “are corrective, each one standing at a point at which there is some temptation to be resisted or deficiency of motivation to be made good.” “It is only because fear and the desire for pleasure often operate as temptations that courage and temperance exist as virtues at all. Virtues are a social construct that correct the negative desires of the human pysche

Virtues as Correctives “If human nature had been different there would have been no need for a corrective disposition in either place, as fear and pleasure would have been good guides to conduct throughout life.” But we need: industriousness as against idleness humility as against the temptation of pride hope because despair is a temptation

Virtues as Correctives Justice and charity are set over against a deficiency in human character. If we would love others as ourselves, we would need no virtue of beneficence. If we would treat our neighbours fairly, we would need no virtue of justice. “On this view of the virtues and vices everything is seen to depend on what human nature is like.”

Virtues as Correctives “The virtues can be seen as correctives in relation to human nature in general but not that each virtue must present a difficulty to each and every man.” It is at this point that we can see how the concept of natural law and natural rights plays into our discussion of virtue.

What is more moral? There is a question posed by Foot. Does the difficulty in carrying out the virtuous act and moral worth to the act itself? She responds by citing Kant’s philanthropist who though distracted from the purpose of doing charity, nonetheless does it out of duty. This to Foot increases the moral worth of the act.

What is more moral? This contrasts directly with Aristotle’s conception of virtue. For foot it is more moral if a person overcomes a dilemma to be virtuous. For Aristotle the virtuous person should have no moral dilemma.

What is more moral? In moral situations being virtuous may be more demanding than in other situations. I have an opportunity to steal and I am tempted to do so. This could shed light on a weakness in my lack of virtue. The more virtuous person would not have been tempted. If I am poor with a starving family I may be sorely tempted to teal if the opportunity arises. In this case resisting the temptation says much more about the strength of my virtue.

What is more moral? Because the need for food in the second case is greater – the temptation is greater However I still overcame it. This shows that I was more moral than the first scenario. These examples demonstrate how virtue ethics looks at the heart of the individual rather than the moral situation.

Can virtue serve the cause of villainy? Aquinas says no. “Virtues can produce only good actions, and that they are dispositions ‘of which no one can make bad use.” The current opinion is mostly afﬁrmative Outside the unpalatable villain who is courageous in crime, the question of doing an injustice for a friend remains.

Can virtue serve the cause of villainy? It does not follow that if one were courageous in a criminal act that the act itself is courageous. “We are inclined to say that it ‘took courage,’ and yet it seems wrong to think of courage as equally connected with good action and bad.”

Can virtue serve the cause of villainy? “One way out of this difficulty might be to say that the man who is ready to pursue bad ends does indeed have courage, and shows courage in his action, but that in him courage is not a virtue.” The same can be said of someone who is over-industrious or too ready to refuse pleasure. In him industriousness and moderation are not virtues.

Can virtue serve the cause of villainy? “For while wisdom always operates as a virtue, its close relation prudence does not, and it is prudence that inspires many a careful life.” It is this that Kant warned about when he said that “these gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will that is to make use of them… is not good.”

Similarities and differences Virtues are needed for human flourishing Virtues exist in a mean between two vices You can judge someone by their moral character. Intuitive assessment of situation. Virtues are the linked to your desires. Virtues act like a conscience. They correct and help you overcome temptation.

Strengths and weaknesses Talks about the moral character of the individual Defines virtues well Relative Guidance on making a moral decision. Virtues act like a separate part of the brain, they act on you not the other way around. No method of development

Review What are the Benefits of virtue? What is a virtue? Virtue is located in the will Wisdom is an important virtue for a good life Virtues are corrective to societies ills The most moral person is one who overcomes a dilemma Can a villain be virtuous? Strengths and weaknesses Similarities and differences

Activities Who do virtues benefit? Explain your answer. Consider the school curriculum you are familiar with. Which subjects cultivate excellences of the body and which cultivate excellences of the will? What virtues does your school refer to in its publicity (prospectus, website, etc) and how do these correspond to the curriculum? Should schools have more virtue learning? What might a virtue school look like?

Activities Think of two more moral examples to illustrate how being virtuous may be more or less demanding depending on the situation. Do you think that it is important for ethical theories to be sensitive to the challenge faced by people to be good? If so why/why not?

Examiners tip Make sure you understand the differences between Anscombe and Foot, particularly the difference between Macintyre and Aristotle. Write out differences clearly and put them onto different coloured sticky notes. Aristotle and MacIntyre highlighted that there are generally three types of people in society but they each cited three different groups of people. Candidates often confuse which group belonged to which philosopher, and the way in which their list of virtues differed.

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Learning objective to consider the virtues in practice: the saladeiNove Key words Moral dilemma Moral agent Conflicting virtues Key question How would a virtue theorist deal with abortion?

activities These images are a representation of the virtues. Look at the three images. Can you identify any virtues? Can you see any vices? The scene is a depiction of good and bad government and how they operate on a city. What do you think is the effect of the vices which are represented in bad government? What do you think is the effect of the virtues which are represented in good government?

The fresco A powerful example of the virtues in operation can be seen from Ambrogio Lorenzetti’s allegory of good and bad government, in the SaladeiNove in the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena, painted between 1337 and 1339. The fresco was painted across all four walls of the hall of the Council of Nine, the city’s administrators. The Nine were chosen every two months to ensure the good of the city.

The fresco The example is important as while it draws on the Christian idea of virtue, it is a secular expression of virtue. The city of Siena at this time was governed by secular authorities distinct from the Church, so it reflects an idea which might be relevant to secular ethical thinking in the modern world.

The place The Palazzo Pubblico in Sienna is notable for: its great campo (square) and tower which stands separate and equal to the dome and tower of Sienna’s Cathedral, an illustration of the separation of the Church and Civic authority and the location of the centre of the city-state.

The fresco The fresco cycle covers three walls of the council chamber. The fourth wall has a window which lights the opposite wall on which is the Allegory of good government. To one side of this are illustrates the effects of good government in town and countryside, and on the other is an illustration of Bad Government and its effects in the urban and rural contexts.

The purpose The frescos are arranged to show the contrast between the happiness, wellbeing and order of life under good government and the darkness, chaos and suffering brought about by bad government. In the former, people are productive in business, there is dancing in the streets and a wedding. The different trades are able to go about their activity including a shoemaker, a teacher, a goldsmith and wine and meet sellers, and in the great city, building is under way.

The purpose in the country the fields are cultivated, farmed and manicured with seeds being sown, wines growing, and peasants and travellers going about their business safely. The produce of the country is bought into the city illustrating that rural and urban life is in harmonious balance, and the figure of security flies overhead. There is an openness about the city in terms of the diversity within and the accessibility to it from the country.

The vices On the opposite wall the effect of bad government are bleakly laid out. Discord and war are rife and there are examples of violence, murder, robbery and betrayal. The city has been heavily damaged, and beyond, in the country, the land is uncultivated, laid waste. Smoke rises from several places and the city seems turned in upon itself, cut off from the desolate countryside around it.

The vices Both scenes have a corresponding government which is depicted through figures of the virtues and vices and some scenes of governance. It the Bad Government, Tyranny presides. Above him fly Pride, Avarice and Vainglory; on either side sit Cruelty, Treason, Fraud, Furor, Division and War. Beneath, Justice is impotent, bound and defeated. The cords of the scales of Justice are broken. Above the country, the harp of fear flies. Around the fresco are various texts with sign messages for the images.

Pride This government will have an overly high view of its own importance and conduct. Avarice This government will have have an insatiable greed for riches or the desire to gain. Vainglory This government will have excessive elation or pride over one’s own achievements, abilities, boastful vanity. Cruelty This government will have cruel punishments or torture. Treason This government will disrespect the sovereignty of the state. There may also be coops Fraud This type of government will be deceitful and breach the confidence of its people Furore This government will be mad, manic and crazed in its decision making. Division This type of government will be divided. There will be no continuity between departments or people War This type of government will relish war and actively seek it.

The vices Because each seeks only his own good in this city Justice is subjected to Tyranny’ ‘where there is tyranny there is great fear’ and ‘where Justice is bound, no one is ever in accord for the common Good, nor pulls the cord (civic concord) , straight (with force and full commitment). In this city – there is no expression of virtue, only vice. This is negative for society.

The citizens control It is the duty of the citizens to keep citizens subject to Justice, to banish those who threaten it and to overthrow tyrants. Responsibility for the common good lies with every citizen, not merely the ruling order or class. Shows the importance of democracy – government for the people, by the people

The virtues the sunlit end of the hall offers a different vision. The court of the Good Government has two central figures. Highest seated to the right is the Common Good, with Faith, Charity and Hope flying above. Seated either side we see Peace, Fortitude, Prudence, Magnanimity, Temperance and Justice.

Faith this is a Christian virtue but can be taken in a secular way as trust in the people or the government to be good Charity A government should be generous and give to the poor and people in need. Hope A government should have a positive attitude towards the future for its people. Peace A government should be peaceful with other nations and not seeking war unnecessarily Fortitude A government must have strength in adversity and be able to deal with struggle well. Prudence A government must have common sense. it must take care for the future and safeguard its people Magnanimity A government must be generous in forgiving an insult or injury, free from resentment or vindictiveness Temperance A government must have moderation or self-restraint in action. Justice A government must treat its people fairly, with righteousness and must be centred on lawfulness

The virtues To the left Justice is depicted again with Wisdom flying above. The virtues metes out Commutative and Distributive justice. Beneath sits Concord and to the right stand 24 Councillors holding the rope of concord. Texts beneath read, ‘This holy Virtue (Justice), where she rules, induces unity to the many souls (of citizens), and they, gathered together for such a purpose, make the Common Good their Lord. Starn 1994

The virtues The virtues are virtues not just for those in government, but every citizen. Dire consequences follow if people’s hearts are governed by vices rather than virtues. The rule of Justice and the priority of the common good and the other virtues allow people of all trades and business to go about pursuing their separate interests. Good and bad government fundamentally and directly affect the quality of human lives.

The virtues Whether we are well or badly governed makes a difference to our lives. We can choose whether our hearts and cities are governed by virtues or vices. The virtues and vices can been seen clearly from the effects and from the principles underpinning those effects. The fresco cycle is instructive for citizens and rulers to achieve well-being in life and it is an example of how virtue thinking was understood in Sienna at that time.

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Learning objective To know and understand the checklist for applying virtue ethics to a theory and to apply it to abortion and euthanasia. Key words Moral dilemma Moral agent Conflicting virtues Key question How would a virtue theorist deal with abortion?

Examiners tip When asked to apply virtue ethics theory to an ethical situation, do not feel that you have to list all aspects of Aristotelian ethics. In class, choose up to four of both intellectual and moral virtues, and work out possible applications of them. Then when it comes to the exam, you just need to recall those discussions.

HOMEWORK Revise for the timed essay Mind map the key ideas of virtue ethics Include within this the additions made by different people Make sure you understand the main differences between Aristotle and the other philosophers Consider how to apply it to an ethical theory

APPLYING VIRTUE THEORY For this exam you must learn how to apply virtue ethics to an ethical dilemma. You can pick any ethical dilemma you wish except for the issues in science and technology. These include: cloning Genetic engineering Animal/human testing Human rights

Applying virtue theory The difficulty is that the theory is concerned with more than actions. It is concerned with the character of the individual. You must look at the upbringing, education and behaviour of people on a day-to-day basis. To look at a moral dilemma is to miss a crucial element of the work of the theory. However, it is though that good actions come from the virtuous person.

Applying virtue We must identify the scenario. We must take virtue in its wider context. Virtue ethics is relativist so we should consider each scenario differently. Therefore, we need to create a scenario and apply virtue ethics to the scenario.

We have to consider for this scenario Applying virtue theory Who are the moral agents What would be the most virtuous thing to do – considering a number of virtues. What sort of characteristics should they be demonstrating Is the act for good for them or society? Would certain options encourage bad or good habits if chosen? Are there conflicting virtues – does one option reflect one virtue and another ? To what extent are your conclusions dependent on agreement about what virtues should be? Does the conclusions seem unreasonable / reasonable?

1 What is the scenario?

2 Who are the moral agents?

3 What would be the most virtuous thing to do – considering a number of virtues.

4 Is it good for them or good for society?

5 Would certain actions encourage good or bad habits?

6 Are there conflicting virtues – does one option reflect one virtue and another?

7 To what extent are your conclusions dependent on agreement about what virtues should be?

8 Are the conclusions reasonable?

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Learning objective To know and understand how compatible virtue ethics and a religious approach to morality are Key words Natural law Right conduct Whole person Key question Can virtue fit with a religious way of life?

OVERview Close links with religion Religion is interested in the whole person Aquinas and Natural law developed the cardinal virtues and vices. Macintyre is a Catholic Buddhism and Hinduism concerned with the whole person. Sikhism has five values to improve and become one with God. No religion will embrace it fully. Natural Law opposes any form of moral relativism

Virtue and religion Virtue ethics is closely associated with religious traditions. Most religions are interested in the whole person They believe that all aspects of a person should be developed They believe that actions alone do not define a person You should develop certain characteristics in order to become a good person.

Aquinas and natural law Aristotle is embraced within Christianity. Aquinas created the Cardinal virtues and the seven deadly sins through study of Aristotle. These have been integrated into natural law and are part of catholic theological and moral understanding.

aquinas During the 13th Century Aquinas was introduced to the writings of Aristotle. Through his Christian writings four of Aristotle's virtues became known as the cardinal values. These are; Prudence Justice Fortitude Temperance They are related to one another and are needed for each other.

high jacked Later appeared the ‘seven cardinal vices’ or the ................ Five of which appeared in Aristotle’s list. These were considered wrong for the person and society. They are still in use today. This development of Aristotle demonstrates the importance of his theory for understanding virtue.

aquinas Christianity is centred around helping other people. The Christian adoption of these virtues demonstrate how important virtues are for helping people as a community. As mentioned earlier Aristotle stressed the importance of the community in moral development. The best people in society are interested in the development of the community as a whole. A person who achieves eudaimonia will be interested in developing the community as a whole. Helping them reach the end goal.

Eastern religions Hindu thinking is concerned with virtue or right conduct. Buddhism compassion (a key virtue) is the most important Buddhist virtue that is to be improved on all the time. Both Buddhism and Hinduism are concerned with the nature of a person. Becoming whole and from this releasing your burden with the world. Motivations are important because they influence Karma.

Sikhism Sikhism is also concerned with virtue. There are five virtues. Sat – truth Santokh – contentment Daya – compassion Nimrata – humilty Pyare – love The ultimate goal is for their soul to merge with God and to achieve this you have to work hard at improving the virtues.

opposition Virtue ethics is a moral theory. No religion would give up their rules in favour of it. Natural law would oppose any subjectivism in ethics. The church is sole legislator. The same for Islam. Therefore, despite being involved with aspects as a whole theory they will not accept it.

Review Close links with religion Religion is interested in the whole person Aquinas and Natural law developed the cardinal virtues and vices. Macintyre is a Catholic Buddhism and Hinduism concerned with the whole person. Sikhism has five values to improve and become one with God. No religion will embrace it fully. Natural Law opposes any form of moral relativism

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Learning objective To complete the practice exam Key words Point Evidence Example Key question What do we know about virtue ethics?

exam tbc

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Learning objective To understand the key issues presented by the board. Is virtue ethics different from teleological and deontological ethics? Virtue ethics and a view of human nature. Key words Non-normative Moral agent Causation Key question What is a virtue?

OVERview Virtue ethics has a different focus It is concerned with personality not actions It is non-normative and does not create laws. It may be teleological but it is concerned with the end of life not the end of an action. Virtue theory requires a sense of the end goal of human life. This way we can tell what is the right thing to do. But human nature is very diverse, we cannot be sure what this is. This view of human nature may be unrealistic.

Is virtue different than teleological and deontological ethics Virtue theory clearly has a focus different from teleological and deontological ethics. What virtue theory brings is a focus on human growth rather than a focus on legislation and judiciary of morality, the focus on what is right and wrong. It is concerned with how people can become moral, rather than what is moral and immoral.

Is virtue different than teleological and deontological ethics Rather than thinking of morality in terms of processes and consequences, systems and principles, it is focused on the character of the human being and has been very important in education. It considers the moral project as one which is about the development of human beings rather than simply the legislation or valuation of moral conduct.

Is virtue different than teleological and deontological ethics Other theories may judge actions or choices, but they do not offer suggestions about how people may become better at being good. Perhaps virtue theory needs deontological ethics as well? ‘In are virtues no more than dispositions to obey moral rules?’ Walter Schaller 1990 argues that moral virtues have only instrumental or derivative value’.

Is virtue different than teleological and deontological ethics This means that virtues are not good in themselves. Virtues are good because they cause good things in society. Aristotle would say that virtues are good qualities in themselves. They are praised by society that give the person moral worth. The specific virtue is relative, but virtues in an abstract sense are good. Without them (whatever they are) a person is meaningless.

Is virtue different than teleological and deontological ethics Virtue ethics has a teleological dimension in that it is concerned with an idea of an end for human beings (the virtuous person) and an end for the human family of society (the virtues of the community). It is focused on the end goal of humanity. The final purpose of being. Virtue ethics takes elements from both sides but it does not fit comfortably into either category.

Examiners tip Make sure you are familiar with the words deontological and teleological and the differences between them. Teleological theories decide the rightness or wrongness of actions by looking at their consequences. Deontological theories are concerned with the motive of an action. The AQA specification asks whether virtue ethics theory is really different from these others. Think about what difference that one word – ‘really’ – means.

Virtue ethics and a view of human nature Virtue theory requires some sense of an idea about what human beings should be like, what they should be becoming, and from that idea the virtues are drawn. So we have suggestions that humans should be charitable and kind rather than selfish and greedy, for instance. The list of virtues and vices is based on an idea of human nature; a perspective of how human beings are which may be challenged by other ideas of human nature.

Virtue ethics and a view of human nature It is possible... That the theory of human nature lying behind the traditional list of virtues and vices puts too much emphasis on hedonistic and sensual impulses, ...and does not sufficiently take account of less straight forward inclinations such as the desire to be put upon dissatisfied or the unwillingness to accept good things as they come along.

Virtue ethics and a view of human nature If human nature is more diverse that Foot and other virtue theorists suggest that this poses a difficult – are your virtues the same as my virtues? Just as MacIntyre tends to think in terms of the importance of community and tradition in agreeing on the virtues, in an increasingly diverse society with more attention being paid to different lifestyles and distinct personality types, it might be that a single list of virtues and vices is not possible.

Virtue ethics and a view of human nature Modern society is fragmented and diverse, with individuals living different lifestyles and flourishing, it would appear, in different ways. The kind of community in which people are united in a common project of character development envisaged by MacIntyre might be unrealistic in a modern diverse world.

activities Which is better – to be humble, or confident and assertive? If you are going out clubbing is it more virtuous to be demure or brash and sexy? Try to think of some virtues which clash? How do we decide which are good and which are not virtues at all?

Review Virtue ethics has a different focus It is concerned with personality not actions It is non-normative and does not create laws. It may be teleological but it is concerned with the end of life not the end of an action. Virtue theory requires a sense of the end goal of human life. This way we can tell what is the right thing to do. But human nature is very diverse, we cannot be sure what this is. This view of human nature may be unrealistic.

What is virtue ethics?