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Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

Explore the key concepts of computer architecture, machine language, program execution, and communicating with devices. Learn about CPU components, machine instructions, arithmetic/logic operations, and data transfer methods. Discover the communication processes between a computer and peripheral devices.

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Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

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  1. Chapter 2:Data Manipulation

  2. Chapter 2: Data Manipulation • 2.1 Computer Architecture • 2.2 Machine Language • 2.3 Program Execution • 2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions • 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices • 2.6 Other Architectures

  3. Computer Architecture • Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor • Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit • Registers • General purpose • Special purpose • Bus • Motherboard

  4. Figure 2.1 CPU and main memory connected via a bus

  5. Stored Program Concept A program can be encoded as bit patterns and stored in main memory. From there, the CPU can then extract the instructions and execute them. In turn, the program to be executed can be altered easily.

  6. Terminology • Machine instruction: An instruction (or command) encoded as a bit pattern recognizable by the CPU • Machine language: The set of all instructions recognized by a machine

  7. Machine Language Philosophies • Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) • Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions • Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola and SPARK from Sun Microsystems • Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) • Many, convenient, and powerful instructions • Example: Pentium from Intel

  8. Machine Instruction Types • Data Transfer: copy data from one location to another • Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to compute a new bit patterns • Control: direct the execution of the program

  9. Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in memory

  10. Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored in memory

  11. Figure 2.4 The architecture of the machine described in Appendix C

  12. Parts of a Machine Instruction • Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute • Operand: Gives more detailed information about the operation • Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-code

  13. Figure 2.5 The composition of an instruction for the machine in Appendix C

  14. Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction 35A7

  15. Figure 2.7 An encoded version of the instructions in Figure 2.2

  16. Program Execution • Controlled by two special-purpose registers • Program counter: address of next instruction • Instruction register: current instruction • Machine Cycle • Fetch • Decode • Execute

  17. Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

  18. Figure 2.9 Decoding the instruction B258

  19. Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7 stored in main memory ready for execution

  20. Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step of the machine cycle

  21. Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step of the machine cycle (cont’d)

  22. Arithmetic/Logic Operations • Logic: AND, OR, XOR • Masking • Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift, arithmetic shift • Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide • Precise action depends on how the values are encoded (two’s complement versus floating-point).

  23. Masking • 00001111 • AND 10101010 • ---------------------------- • 00001010

  24. Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern 65 (hexadecimal) one bit to the right

  25. Logical shift • To discard the bit that falls off the edge and always fill the hole with a 0

  26. Arithmetic shift • The way that do right shifts and fill the hole with its original value.

  27. Solution of question 11 • 12A7(load) • 2380(load) • 7023(OR) • 30A7(store) • c000

  28. Solution of q12 • 15E0(load) • A502(rotate 2bits right) • 260F(load) • 8056(AND) • 30E1(store) • c000

  29. Communicating with Other Devices • Controller: An intermediary apparatus( a collection of circuitry) that handles communication between the computer and a peripheral device • Specialized controllers for each type of device • General purpose controllers (USB and FireWire) • Peripheral device: Monitor, keyboard, mice, printer, mass storage system, digital cameras • Port: The point at which a device connects to a computer

  30. Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a machine’s bus

  31. How does CPU handle communication? • Special I/O instructions e.g. AARXY AA store the contents of register R to Peripheral device location XY • Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with peripheral devices as though they were memory cells

  32. Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation of memory-mapped I/O

  33. DMA • Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory access by a controller over the bus • DMA allows the CPU and controller work at the same time, so to save the waiting time of CPU. • Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient bus speed impedes performance

  34. Handshaking • Handshaking: The process of coordinating the transfer of data between components • Status word: a bit map in which the bits reflect the conditions of the device • Take the status word between a printer and computer as an example.

  35. C->P: Hey, wake up • P->C: Wait, I will need some time… • P->C: OK, I am ready. • C->P: I am sending a 10MB file to you. • P->C: OK, I can accommodate 2 MB one time, fire away! • C->P: This is the first 2 MB. • P->C: I have received the first 2 MB file and printing it. • P->C: OK, I am ready to receive the second 2 MD file • …..

  36. Communicating with Other Devices (continued) • Parallel Communication: Several communication paths transfer bits simultaneously. • The transmission distance can not be long, otherwise, the signals will be lost. • Serial Communication: Bits are transferred one after the other over a single communication path. • ..can transfer long distance

  37. MODEM • To transfer the digital data over voice line, we need MODEM to convert digital signals to voice tones (analog signal). And, the MODEM of receiver side will convert analog signals back to digital data.

  38. DSL • Digital subscriber line • Take the high frequency of spectrum to send data while leave the lower frequency part of spectrum to voice transfer • 非對稱數位式用戶線路( Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line ) • Other Broadband service: cable television system, satellite…

  39. Data Communication Rates • Measurement units • Bps: Bits per second • Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps) • Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps) • Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps) • Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

  40. Other Architectures • Technologies to increase throughput: • Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle • Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors simultaneously • SISD: No parallel processing • MIMD: Different programs, different data • SIMD: Same program, different data

  41. SISD

  42. SIMD • Several CPU execute same program, but handling different data, E.g. Tax data processing

  43. SIMD

  44. MIMD • MIMD: slice the program into several smaller programs and ask other CPU to execute them.

  45. MIMD

  46. dual-core CPUs

  47. Gates and Jobs • Bill Gates • The founder of Microsoft Inc. • Steve Jobs • The founder of Apple Inc.

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