Modules on Sustainable Agriculture MOSA

1. Modules on Sustainable Agriculture MOSA 10 Sustainable Plant Protection

2. Keywords Good Agricultural Practice Sustainable plant protection Interaction between environment - crops - pests - humans Integrated Pest Management Cultural practices Choice of variety Protection of beneficial organisms Decision making Biological and mechanical control Sustainable pesticide use Diagnose, assessment and documentation International conventions pesticides Preconditions for sustainable plant protection

3. Content Chapter 1: Interactions between environment, crops, pests and humans Chapter 2: The concept of Integrated Pest Management Chapter 3: Conditions for sustainable plant protection

4. Chapter 1: Interactions between environment, crops, pests and humans

5. Causes for crop injury ? What are major causes for crop injury in your region?

6. Why plant protection? Causes for crop injury and crop losses Causes for plant damage and crop losses Biotic factors: • Weeds (grassy,leafy, parasitic weeds) • Animal pests (insects, mites, nematodes, slugs/snails, rodents, birds, mammals) • Diseases (fungi, viruses, bacteria, microorganisms) Abiotic factors: • Water (drought, waterlogging) • Temperature • Nutrients/soil (deficiency, toxicity) • Light (sun scorching,…) • Wind (see modules Water and Water Use, Climate, Nutrients) Crop losses in a farmer’s perspective

7. Why sustainable plant protection? B. Y. Ashiadey 1) Oerke 2006 2) Savary et al 2000b Implications of intensive use of synthetic plant protection products (pesticides) • On persons handling and applying pesticides • Environment including biodiversity and water bodies • Consumer protection and food safety • Pesticide externalities. Need for sustainable agricultural production and plant protection • Emphasis on improving agricultural productivity while minimizing harmful effects on the climate, soil, water, air, biodiversity and human health • Aims to minimize use of inputs from non-renewable resources and to preserve natural resources for coming generations.

8. Interaction between environment - crops - pests - humans Humans Susceptible Crop Pest infestation / injury Pest Conducive Environ-ment After Vanderplank 1963, Zadoks and Schein 1979 For a substantial pest infestation and injury to occur, all three elements of the so-called pest triangle must be present. MOSA – Modules on Sustainable Agriculture

9. Quantitative and qualitative impacts of pests Corn weevil (Degesch Inc.) Weeds in soybean (www.extension.iastate.edu) Ramularia leaf spot, barley (HO Pinnschmidt) Qualitative crop losses • Reduced content of valuable ingredients • Reduced market and storage quality • Contamination with pests or toxic products, ... Anthracnose, mango (SC Nelson http://hawaiiplantdisease.net) 1) After Boote et. al. 1983 Pests reduce productivity in many ways 1) • Stand reducers (damping-off pathogens) • Photosynthetic rate reducers (fungi, bacteria, viruses) • Leaf senescence accelerators (pathogens) • Light stealers (weeds, some pathogens) • Assimilate sappers (nematodes, pathogens, sucking arthropods) • Tissue consumers (chewing animals, pathogens) • Nutrients competers (weeds).

10. Basic biological features relevant for plant protection – Example insect pests UNL UNL Asian corn borer Images from http://entomology.unl.edu Crucial for any successful plant protection action: • Recognition of pest species • Basic understanding of pest biology and interactions with host plant and environment. Diversity of pests, each going through different development stages J Kalisch, UNL

11. Chapter 2: The concept of Integrated Pest Management

12. Integrated Pest Management - Definition “Integrated Pest Management (IPM) means the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human and animal health and/or the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms.” (FAO - WHO Definition 2014)

13. Integrated pest management - Concept The concept of IPM builds on Good Agricultural Practice Typical elements of IPM concept: • Prevention and/or suppression of harmful organisms through cultural practices and Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) • Use of pest resistant / tolerant cultivars • Protection and enhancement of beneficial organisms • Pest management measures based on monitoring and thresholds • Sustainable pesticide use as last resort.

14. Prevention and/or suppression of pests through cultural practices Crop rotation (Distance between identical crops in time and space reduces survival and spread of pest from crop to crop) Intercropping (Many pests and diseases multiply less rapidly in a mixed crop compared to the monocultured crop) (see also module Biodiversity) Proper field sanitation and hygiene measures to avoid spreading of pests Proper soil cultivation (Plowing promotes antagonists, removes infested debris from surface) (see also module Soil) Right time of sowing, row distancing, fertilizing and water management (Good Agricultural Practice to promote optimum growth conditions for the crop, not for pests, e.g. weeds )

15. Susceptible - tolerant - resistant varietiesWhich is which? Explain the difference! (http://thailand.ipm-info.org/images/components/resistance.jpg)

16. Choice of variety and quality of seeds (http://thailand.ipm-info.org/images/components/resistance.jpg) Resistant / tolerant varieties - one of the main pillars of IPM Special case: Genetically modified varieties Can be used in IPM, but are considered to be of subsidiary importance. Locally adapted varieties: stronger crops – more tolerant to pests Healthy/ good quality seeds: Healthy seeds are especially important for seed borne diseases, good quality seeds essential to grow strong crop.

17. Protection and enhancement of beneficial organisms Each pest organism is part of a complex ecosystem and has a number of natural enemies (beneficial organisms) Beneficial organisms provide natural biological control (and pollination) Agricultural production should aim at enhancement and protection of beneficial organisms (see also module Biodiveristy) Examples: • Conservation of natural habitats/‘retreat areas’ (uncultivated areas/rows of certain crops in/around rice that attract beneficials/ …) • Use non hazardous and gentle plant protection measures: ?

18. Protection and enhancement of beneficial organisms Each pest organism is part of a complex ecosystem and has a number of natural enemies (beneficial organisms) Beneficial organisms provide natural biological control (and pollination) Agricultural production should aim at enhancement and protection of beneficial organisms (see also module Biodiversity) Examples: • Conservation of natural habitats/‘retreat areas’ (uncultivated areas/rows of certain crops in/around rice that attract beneficials/ …) • Use non hazardous and gentle plant protection measures: • Use selective pesticides • Treat only heavily infested parts of field • Use selective alternatives like e. g. pheromone traps.

19. Farmer’s decision - based on understanding and knowledge (http://thebatteryrecycler.com) Goal of IPM training: Empower farmers to make their own decision Question: ‘What is worth more, the yield that I might lose If I don’t do anything - or the cost of a plant protection measure for example spraying?’ Decision requires knowledge such as: ?

20. Farmer’s decision - based on understanding and knowledge (http://thebatteryrecycler.com) Goal of IPM training: Empower farmers to make their own decision Question: ‘What is worth more, the yield that I might lose If I don’t do anything - or the cost of a plant protection measure for example spraying?’ Decision requires knowledge such as: • Recognition of pests and natural enemies and understanding their interaction • Effect of pests on crop yield • Effect of pesticides on natural enemies, cost of application • Available alternatives, how to apply, costs.

21. Main biotic abiotic problems ? What are major problems in your region?

22. Economic Thresholds (ET) – Revised concept ET – instrument to improve the decision making based on: - Cost of control - Commodity value - Damage coefficient including a measure for the quantity of pests Original concept: farmer was advised to spray, when the field population of the pest was higher than the ET Today other factors are included in analysis such as: ?

23. Economic Thresholds (ET) – Revised concept ET – instrument to improve the decision making based on: - Cost of control - Commodity value - Damage coefficient including a measure for the quantity of pests Original concept: farmer was advised to spray, when the field population of the pest was higher than the ET Today other factors are included in analysis such as: - Levels of natural enemies and environmental costs - Plant tolerance and ability to compensate for damage - Other investment opportunities - Weather forecasts, … Farmers often make their decision by virtual judgement. ET are mostly used for surveillance and early warning systems.

24. Plant protection measures • Physical/mechanical measures (Mechanical weeding, insect nets, rat barriers and traps, hot water seed treatment, …) • Behavioral control of insects (Mating disruption with sex pheromones, trapping with sex pheromones or plant derived attractants,…) • Biological control (Use of one species to level the population of a pest species. Predators, parasitoids, herbivores, pathogens. ‘Microbial pesticides’.) • Botanical pesticides (Plant derived products) • Chemical control (Use of synthetic plant production products such as herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, …) • IPM: Use of chemical control only as ‘last resort’

25. Sustainable pesticide use (I): use of pesticides Pesticides should be used efficiently and impose least possible impact on humans and the environment. Efficient use of pesticides • Consider reducing pesticide dosage and limiting treatment to infested field portions only • Reduce application frequencies (only as many times as necessary) -Choose the best timing (crop stage - pest stage - weather conditions) • Pesticide application equipment should work efficiently and properly. Protect beneficial organisms and environment • If a pesticide is needed, choose one that is effective against the pest and the least toxic to humans and environment (selective pesticide) • No aerial spraying; do not spray near waterways/ water reservoirs/protected areas.

26. Sustainable pesticide use (II): safe handling Pesticides should be used efficiently and impose least possible impact on humans and the environment. Least possible exposure of user / bystanders / consumers • Train users in proper use (handling often by women and poor, less educated landworkers) • Use protective clothing • Safe storage, no re-using of pesticide containers for other purposes, safe disposal of containers. Need for availability of appropriate pesticides, protective clothing, adequate equipment

27. Women in plant protection ? What is the role of women in plant protection in your region? • Are women involved in diagnose and assessment of pests? • Who applies chemical pesticides? • Who does weeding? • If plant protection measures are done badly, who loses money? Is the income of women reduced? • What do women think about storing the pesticide sprayer in the house to avoid steeling? • Do women administrate pesticides? • Do women tend to employ biological control rather than use pesticides? • Are children involved in plant protection, e.g. scaring birds away? -

28. Chapter 3: Conditions for sustainable plant protection

29. Diagnosis and assessment G Felkl The farmer should take a decision on plant protection measures based on knowledge. Essential requirements for this are: • Solid knowledge on kind and stage of pest and natural enemies • Visual guides, other diagnose kits or decision tools • Assessment of severity of problem through regular field visits • Knowing sampling methods for field assessment (sample size, sampling pattern) • Mutual exchange of farmers and advice (peer groups) • Weather forecasts • Early warning systems for certain pests (or diseases).

30. = healthy plant = diseased plantHow severe is the infestation? The farmer has to decide! Severity of pest infestation ? % ? % ? % ? %

31. Preparation of action – Monitoring and documentation after action Practical issues before applying plant protection measures: • Purchase/order of biological control agents or pesticides • Have protective clothing ready to use • Check the application equipment (if possible regular services), check accessibility of field • Find out how to apply biological control agent, read pesticide label, calculate dosage and mixture • Get advice from independent advisor. Monitoring of impact and documentation after action: • Assess pest status after action to check success of measure • Document the situation before and after action per field (pest kind & quantity, treatment kind & quantity, time of treatment,…).

32. ? What is a good plant protectionist? • Is a good plant protectionist one that goes to the field 2, 5 or 10 times? • Should a good plant protectionist support plant growth or concentrate on plant protection? • Where does a good plant protectionist get support and information?

33. Preconditions for sustainable plant protection are seen on individual and governmental level Competencies and skills of farmers • Education and training of farmers • Need for independent, decentralized plant protection advice. Governmental and institutional level • Define regionally adapted Good Agricultural Practices for all cropping systems • Promote alternatives to pesticides (e.g. favorable policies for biological control) • Rules for pesticide registration and quality, application equipment inspection,… • Capable institutions to design policies and enforce rules (quality control of pesticides, …) • Strengthen regional/national research • Strengthen a seed sector that provides locally adapted high quality seeds • Crop insurances and credit systems.

34. Recap Keywords Good Agricultural Practice Sustainable plant protection Interaction between environment - crops - pests - humans Integrated Pest Management Cultural practices Choice of variety Protection of beneficial organisms Decision making Biological and mechanical control Sustainable pesticide use Diagnose, assessment and documentation International conventions pesticides Preconditions for sustainable plant protection

35. Thank you

36. Choice of variety and seeds (http://thailand.ipm-info.org/images/components/resistance.jpg) Resistant / tolerant varieties - one of the main pillars of IPM Special case: Genetically modified varieties Can be used in IPM, but are considered to be of subsidiary importance. Locally adapted varieties: stronger crops – more tolerant to pests Healthy/ good quality seeds: Healthy seeds are especially important for seed borne diseases, good quality seeds essential to grow strong crop.

37. Crop injury causes: biotic- abiotic How to find out? HO Pinnschmidt HO Pinnschmidt SC Nelson Ozone injury; potato Mg deficiency; tomato Ramularia leaf spot; barley Leaf scald; barley Scorching due to sun, light temperature & wind; corn Leafhopper damage; grape utahpests.usu.edu Know your pests – it’s not trivial!

38. Information and portals regarding sustainable plant protection, IPM, crops and pests Animal Health Australia and Plant Health Australia, Farm Biosecurity, http://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au AVRDC The World Vegetable Center, http://avrdc.org/ Biovision Africa Trust, Foundation for Ecological Development, http://www.infonet-biovision.org Department of Agriculture Thailand, IPM Danida Project, IPM-Thailand, http://thailand.ipm-info.org FAO Plant Production and Protection, http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/agp-home International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Rice Knowledge Bank, http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources, http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/GENERAL US Environmental Protection Agency, About pesticides, http://www.epa.gov/pesticides

39. References used for presentation (selection) Boote, K.J., Jones, J.W., Mishoe, J.W. and Berger, R.D. (1983): Coupling pests to crop growth simulators to predict yield reductions. Phytopathology 73, 1581–1587. Krall , S. (2013): Using genetically modified organisms in agriculture. Briefing note, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Division Rural Development and Agriculture.Oerke, E.-C. (2006): Crop losses to pests. Journal of Agricultural Science, 144, 31–43. Savary, S., F. Horgan, L. Willocquet, K.L. and Heong (2012): A review of principles for sustainable pest management in rice. Crop Protection 32, 54 – 63. Savary, S., Willocquet, L., Elazegui, F.A., Teng, P.S., Du, P.V., Zhu, D., Tang, Q., Huang, S., Lin, X., Singh, H.M. and Srivastava, R.K. (2000a): Rice pest constraints in tropical Asia: characterization of injury profiles in relation to production situations. Plant Dis. 84, 341 – 356. Savary, S., Willocquet, L., Elazegui, F.A., Castilla, N. and Teng, P.S. (2000b): Rice pest constraints in tropical Asia: quantification of yield losses due to rice pests in a range of production situations. Plant Dis. 84, 357 - 369. United Nations, Department of Economis and Social Affairs (2014): World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision. http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm, accessed 19. September 2014. Vanderplank, J.C. (1963): Plant Diseases. Epidemics and Control. Academic Press,New York. Zadoks, J.C. and Schein, R.D. (1979): Epidemiology and Plant Disease Management. Oxford University Press, New York.