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Chapter 7: Ethnicity

Chapter 7: Ethnicity. Ethnicity. Ethnicity – group of people that share a common cultural background Controversy in U.S. How much discrimination still exists? Should preference be given to correct past mistakes? To what extent should distinct identity of ethnicity be encouraged or protected

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Chapter 7: Ethnicity

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  1. Chapter 7: Ethnicity

  2. Ethnicity • Ethnicity – group of people that share a common cultural background • Controversy in U.S. • How much discrimination still exists? • Should preference be given to correct past mistakes? • To what extent should distinct identity of ethnicity be encouraged or protected • Race – group that shares a biological ancestor - usually related to skin color or other physical characteristics • Ethnicity cannot be changed, but it can be mixed and diluted

  3. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Distribution in the U.S. • Hispanic/Latino 14% • African American 12% • Asian American 4% • American Indian 1% • Clustering of Ethnicities • African Americans – in Southeast; over 25% of AL, GA, LA, MD, SC, & MS (33%) • Hispanics – in Southwest; 25% of CA, 33% of AZ, NM, TX; 30% of all Hispanics live in CA, 20% in TX, 15% in FL; 64% Mexican/Chicano, 10% Puerto Rican, 4% Cuban • Asian – in West; 12% of CA (1/2 of all Asians), 40% of HI; 23% Chinese, 19% Indian, 18% Filipino, 10% Vietnamese, 10% Korean, 7% Japanese • American Indian – in Southwest & Great Plains; also in Alaska (Eskimo-Aleut)

  4. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Concentration in Cities • African Americans – 50% in cities • Detroit – 85% African American; MI is 7%; 50% of Michigan’s African Americans live in Detroit • Chicago – 1/3 African American; IL 1/12; 50% of Illinois’ African Americans live in Chicago • Hispanics • NYC – 25%; NY State – 1/16; 75% of NY’s Hispanics live in NYC • 50% of Los Angeles, El Paso, San Antonio • Neighborhood Scale • Ethnicities cluster in neighborhoods (African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, Little Italy, Chinatown, etc.); ethnic enclaves of one ethnicity surrounded by others; ethnoburbs in suburbs • Southern & Eastern European immigrants in Midwest (Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland) for steel & auto factories • 1910 – 75% of Detroit were immigrants; clustered in neighborhoods (Greektown, Poletown) • Los Angeles – AA in south central, Hispanics in east, Asians in south & west – 1992 riots (Rodney King); Asian stores looted by African Americans

  5. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • African American Migration Patterns (3 major flows): • Forced migration from Africa • Slavery – 1st to American colonies in 1619 (Jamestown, VA) • 1700s – 400,000 brought by British • U.S. banned new slaves in 1808 – 250,000 brought illegally for next 50+ years • Very few slaves in Europe, but 10 million brought by Europeans to Western Hemisphere 1710-1810 (Brazil, Caribbean, etc.) – 5% to U.S. • Coastal Africans had better weapons and traded slaves with Europeans (captured interior peoples) • Spanish & Portuguese in 1500s; British, Dutch, French in 1600s • Most slaves from West Africa • Triangular Slave Trade – goods to Africa, gold & slaves to Caribbean, rum/molasses/tobacco/cotton to Europe • Hardships on journey, leaving families, forced labor • Slavery was big issue in U.S. from Constitution to Civil War (slave states vs. free states) • 13th, 14th, & 15th Amendments

  6. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • African American Migration Patterns (3 major flows): • Great Migration North • Freed slaves often lived in South as sharecroppers • Decline in cotton demand and increase in machinery forced many off farms • Pulled towards industrial jobs in the North • Main routes: • Carolinas & South Atlantic to Baltimore, Philadelphia, NYC (U.S. 1 or I-95) • AL & E. TN to Detroit or Cleveland (U.S. 25 or 21 & I-75 or I-77) • MS & W. TN to St. Louis & Chicago (U.S. 61 or 66 & I-55) • TX to CA (U.S. 80 or 90 & I-10 or I-20) • 2 waves: 1910s-20s before and after WWI & 1940s-50s before and after WWII • Detroit African American pop. 5,741 – 500,000 (1910-1960)

  7. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • African American Migration Patterns (3 major flows): • Expansion of the Ghetto • Clustering of African Americans in cities • Areas referred to as ghettos as many were unable to live in other areas (refusal to sell, poverty, etc.) • South Side Chicago – 500,000 African Americans in 3 square miles • Baltimore – 250,000 in 1 square mile (1950) NW of downtown • High density in inner-city vs. suburbs (100,000/sq. mile vs. 5,000/sq. mile • Moved from ghettos to adjacent neighborhoods in 1950s & 60s – expansion of ghettos along major roads

  8. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Differentiating Ethnicity & Race • In U.S: • Asian race roughly = Asian ethnicity • Black race vs. African American (black may include Latin American, Caribbean, Asian, or Pacific) • Hispanic/Latino is NOT a race – must choose white, black, or other, but could mark Hispanic as their origin • Racism – belief in superiority/inferiority of a race or racial characteristics • Ethnocentrism – belief in superiority of one’s ethnicity • Ethnicity is more tied to location & culture • 2010 U.S. Census (14 races) • White 75%, Black 12%, American Indian, Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Other Asian, Native Hawaiian, Guamanian/Chamorro, Samoan, Other Pacific Islander, Other race (2% checked more than 1 box) • Possible new “race” in 2020 – MENA (Middle Eastern & North African)

  9. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Separate But Equal Doctrine • Once legal spatial separation of races • Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – Supreme Court ruling that allowed/legalized segregation as long as facilities were “equal” • Jim Crow Laws – segregation in South (buses, schools, hotels, restaurants, shops, bathrooms, etc.) • Deeds with restrictions on selling homes to blacks (sometimes also to Catholics & Jews) • White Flight • Elimination of segregation in 1950s & 60s (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS in 1954) • Minority facilities inferior and therefore unequal • Whites fled rather than integrate (Ex. Detroit 1.5 million whites left 1950-2000) • Whites often moved to suburbs – blacks moved in • Blockbusting – illegal real estate practice to convince whites to sell cheaply & sell at a higher price to blacks trying to escape ghettos • Kerner Commission (1968) – U.S. cities were 2 separate & unequal societies

  10. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Apartheid in South Africa • South Africa increased segregation while U.S. was ending it • 4 races: white (14%), colored (mix of white & black – 8%), Asian (3%), black (75%) • Race determined where you could live, go to school, shop, own land, travel within country • Blacks could not vote or run for office, could only hold certain jobs with lower wages • Dutch 1652 settled Cape Town area (known as Boers/farmers or Afrikaaner) • British captured Cape, Boers moved inland (Transvaal & Orange Free State) • Gold & diamonds discovered – British moved in & won Boer Wars in 1902 • British & Afrikaaners both refused to give power to blacks • 1970s & 80s – other countries imposed economic sanctions to oppose apartheid • 4 black homelands created (10 proposed) – would have been 13% of land for 44% of population (forced moving of blacks by gov’t) • End of Apartheid (1991) helped by African National Congress (ANC) • Nelson Mandela (jailed for 27 years) & Bishop Desmond Tutu • Mandela elected 1st black president of South Africa in 1994 • Blacks have political equality but remain much poorer (whites make 10x more than blacks on average)

  11. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Nationality – legal attachment and personal allegiance to a country; similar to ethnicity in having a shared cultural ancestry, but different because of political attachment (Ex. Citizenship) • Rise of Nationalities • Europeans in U.S. (immigrants) often identify themselves by ethnicity (Czech, Poles, Germans, Italians, etc.) but identify with the American nationality • Quebec – nationality is Canadian, but ethnically French Canadian (Quebecois) • Nation States • Ethnic groups transformed into nations out of the desire for self-rule (self-determination) • Nation-state – a state/country whose territory corresponds roughly to an area occupied by a single ethnicity • Problems with nation states – not exact; always some mix of groups (minorities vs. majority)

  12. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Nation States in Europe • France was ruled by a king until French Revolution; shortly after, Napoleon ruled France as a nation unified by language, culture, & religion • Most of Western Europe organized into states by 1900 • Boundary disputes • Territory claims in Africa and Asia (colonies) • Central & Eastern Europe made up of empires with multiple ethnic groups at that time • After WWI – Austro-Hungary & Ottoman empires broken up • Territorial boundaries drawn based on nation-state principal (usually using languages to determine) • Nazis (German National Socialists) wanted to unify all German-speaking parts of Europe (Germany, Austria, Sudetenland in Czech, territory lost to France in WWI) • Irredentism – movement to reclaim/reoccupy a lost homeland; based on real or imagined historic or ethnic connections • WWII did not begin until they invaded Poland (not German-speaking) • Examples of nation-states: Japan, Albania, Hungary, Egypt, Armenia, Estonia, Iceland, Lesotho, Malta, Poland, Portugal, etc.

  13. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Examples of irredentism • Argentina claims Falkland Islands, South Georgia Island, and South Sandwich Island (all part of U.K.) • Bolivia claims territory lost to Chile in War of the Pacific 1879-1883 (left Bolivia landlocked without access to Pacific) • China claims Taiwan • India claims all of Jammu & Kashmir (divided among India, Pakistan, & China) • Indonesia claims East Timor • Israel/Palestine • North & South Korea (claim each other) • Some Mexican-Americans & the Reconquista movement want to claim for Mexico much of the west & southwest U.S. lost with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (end of Mexican-American War in 1848)

  14. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Denmark: No Perfect Nation-States • Danish ethnicity fairly well occupied by Denmark (Danes) for 1,000 years; very few Danes outside Denmark • Not precise along southern border with Germany (Schleswig-Holstein) – some Danes in Germany & Germans in Denmark • Have controlled Faroe Islands for 600 years (speak Faroese) • Greenland (world’s largest island) controlled by Denmark – 50x size of Denmark, 13% Danish, 87% Inuit • 1979 – Denmark gave more autonomy to Greenland & place names changed from Danish to Inuit (Ex. Capital city of Godthab renamed to Nuuk) • Inuit name for Greenland is KalaallitNunaat • Nationalism – loyalty & devotion to one’s country/nationality (emphasis of one’s own country to others) • Gov’t use of media to promote nationalism • Symbols to promote nationalism – flags, songs, leaders • Hammer & sickle and red color for Communism (USSR) • Support in U.S. to make flag-burning illegal • National anthems – extol virtues of country, significant historical events, promote unity & respect (particularly with armed forces/veterans)

  15. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Impacts of Nationalism • Often emphasize shared attitudes and characteristics to unify people (may exclude minorities, immigrants) • Jokes against other nationalities • Superiority complex • Foster strong dislike and potential conflict with other nations • Centripetal force – forces that unify people and enhance support for the state • Examples: sports, common language, common religion, single ethnic group, anthems, flags, symbols, common interests, etc. • Centrifugal force – forces that divide people and reduce support for the state • Examples: multiple languages, religious diversity, multiple ethnicities, etc.

  16. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Multinational States • Multi-ethnic state – state with 2 or more ethnic groups (which contribute to one nationality) • Ex. Belgium (Flemings & Walloons), Switzerland, U.S., Canada, Mexico, etc.) • Multi-national state – state with 2 or more ethnic groups with a history of self-determination that agree to coexist peacefully • May have 1 group try to dominate the others (Russia in USSR) • Assimilation vs. culturally distinct • Ex. United Kingdom, Russia, former USSR, former Yugoslavia, former Austro-Hungarian empire • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland • England - largest and most dominant in UK • Scotland – 1603 Scotland’s James VI became James I of England; 1707 formal union • Wales – conquered in 1282; formal union in 1536 • Northern Ireland – 1801 UK and Ireland union; ruled by British until 1920; voted to remain with UK • Little political independence, but view themselves as separate nationalities (sports/soccer teams)

  17. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Former Soviet Union (USSR) – once the largest multinational state • Collapsed in early 1990s into 15 republics based on the 15 largest ethnicities • 3 Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania • 3 European states – Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine • 5 Central Asian states – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan • 3 Caucasus states – Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia • Russia • Struggle with creating nation states – lack of peace in Caucasus Mts.; minorities in new countries; many ethnic groups with no country in Russia • New Baltic States (on the Baltic Sea) • Independent from 1918-1940 (between WWI & WWII); annexed by USSR • Estonia – 68% Estonian, 26% Russian; Lutheran Protestant, speaks a Uralic language related to Finnish • Latvia – 58% Latvian, 30% Russian, Lutheran & Catholic, (Indo-European) Balto-Slavic language • Lithuania – 83% Lithuanian, 6% Russian, Catholic, Balto-Slavic language

  18. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • New European Nation States • Belarus – 81% Belarusian, isolated from Russian Slavs 1200-1700 AD • Moldova – 78% Moldovan, ethnically similar to Romanian, seized by Russia in 1940, many Ukrainians & Russians live there and oppose reunification with Romania • Transnistria (Trans-Dniestria) – unrecognized breakaway republic of Moldova near the Ukrainian border (32% Moldovan, 30% Russian, 29% Ukrainian) • Ukraine – 78% Ukrainian, isolated from Russian Slavs 1200-1700 • Crimean Peninsula (Black Sea) – 2/3 Russian; controlled by Russia until 1954; returned to Ukraine in 1954; key port for Russian navy; 166,000 Tatars migrated there from Central Asia; voted to join Russia in 2014; annexed by Russia; disputed by Ukraine & UN • 2013-14 Crisis in Ukraine – Pursued closer ties to European Union until Russia threatened economic penalties; country split over closer ties to Europe (west) & closer ties to Russia (east); sizable Russian minority in eastern and southern Ukraine

  19. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • New Central Asian States • Turkmenistan – 85% Turkmen, Muslim, Altaic language, 4% Russian, many Turkmen living in Russia • Uzbekistan – 80% Uzbek, 6% Russian, Muslim, Altaic language, many Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan & Tajikistan • Kyrgyzstan – 65% Kyrgyz, 14% Uzbek, 13% Russian, Altaic language • Kazakhstan – 2x size of other 4 nations, 53% Kazakhs (Muslim, Altaic), 30% Russian (Eastern Orthodox, Indo-European/Balto-Slavic language); some tension between Russians and Kazakhs • Tajikistan – 79% Tajik, 15% Uzbek, 1% Russian, Muslim, language is Indic group of Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European, civil war among Tajiks (Communists vs. Muslims & Western-oriented intellectuals) • Border disputes over land & water in Fergana Valley (where Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, & Tajikistan meet)

  20. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Russia – currently the largest multinational state • 39 official nationalities recognized in Russia • 2 clusters: • Near neighbors – Mongolia, former USSR republics, & Caucasus (Chechen, Ossetian, Buryats, Dagestani) • Center between Volga R. and Ural Mts. (Bashkirs, Tatars, Mordvins) • 20% of Russia is non-Russian • Independence movements on the rise • Ex. Chechnya (Chechens in Caucasus – Sunni Muslims, distinct culture); 50-year fight in 1800s for control of Chechnya; declared independence in 1991 (but ignored by Russia); Chechen rebels have fought war and sometimes used terrorist-style tactics • Russia feared independence to Chechens would encourage more movements; used military force; region important for development & oil • Russians in other states • Russian military & migrants in former USSR republics • Other countries fear re-assertion of Russian force • Russians feel discrimination (may not be allowed to vote or given full citizenship; may be passed over for jobs; don’t speak the language; difficult to migrate back to Russia with no jobs, money, land, or homes waiting for them there)

  21. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • New Caucasus States • Caucasus region is size of Colorado between Black & Caspian Seas; very mountainous • Considered a shatter belt – zone of frequent territorial conflict • Azeris, Armenians, Georgians, Russians, Kurds, Chechens, Ossetians, Abkhazians, Ingush, Dagestani (collection of 50+ ethnic groups) • Few disputes during USSR – military force, gov’t promoted allegiance to Communism • Long-standing conflict re-emerged; not all ethnic groups given their own country • Azeris • Azerbaijani – roots to Turkish invaders from Central Asia 8th & 9th centuries; merged with existing Persians (Farsi) • 1828 – split between Russia & Iran • 7 million Azeris in Azerbaijan (91%), 16 million in Iran (24% of Iran); important in government & economy but language is restricted • Muslim • Fragmented state – western exclave of Nakhchivan separated by Armenia

  22. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Armenians • Christian since 303 AD; under rule of Turkish Muslims for a long time • Many massacred in late 1800s & early 1900s by Turks (Armenian Genocide) • Divided between Russia & Turkey in 1921 • 98% Armenian (many live outside Armenia due to dispersal from genocide) • War with Azerbaijan since 1988 over boundary disputes – unrecognized breakaway republic of Nagorno-Karabakh (a region of Azerbaijan where the people are mostly Armenian) • Georgians • 84% Georgian, 7% Azeri, 6% Armenian, 2% Russian, 3% other • Diversity is a source of unrest • Ossetians – South Ossetia (northern part of Georgia) is a mostly unrecognized breakaway republic that desires reunification with North Ossetia (in Russia); war between Georgia & Russia when Russia annexed South Ossetia in 2008 • Abkhazians – Abkhazia is an unrecognized breakaway republic in NW Georgia; may be occupied by Russian military • Community for Democracy & Rights of Nations (Commonwealth of Unrecognized States) • Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, & Nagorno-Karabakh • Recognize each other; limited recognition by outsiders

  23. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Revival of Ethnic Identity • Karl Marx (Communism) believed working class would identify by class rather than a nationality/ethnicity • Ethnicity became more important than nationality in late 20th century Europe • Ethnicity & Communism • Nation-state principal minimized in favor of communist economic cooperation • Bulgaria – repressed Turkish & Islam; Turks migrated to Turkey • Centripetal forces to discourage expression of cultural uniqueness (often government-backed propaganda) • Writers & artists used socialist realism to emphasize Communist values • Use of Russian language in USSR & as a 2nd language in Eastern Europe • Discourage organized religion • Recognized ethnic groups in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, & USSR

  24. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Rebirth of Nationalism in Europe • Repressed for 50-80 years; nationalism was on the rise by the early 1990s leading to fall of Communism • Most numerous ethnicities created nation states our of former Yugoslavia & USSR • Less numerous ethnicities left in multinational states or divided across borders • Many problems in Balkan Peninsula with former-Yugoslavia • Bulgaria – Turkish minority pushed for more rights (teach Turkish in schools) • USSR – broke up as minorities opposed Russian dominance • Yugoslavia – dominated by Serbs • Czechoslovakia – dominated by Czechs • Breakup of states peaceful as long as borders corresponded to clearly defined ethnic territory (Ex. Slovenia in former Yugoslavia is 93% Slovene; almost all Slovenes live in Slovenia) • Velvet Divorce – peaceful split of Czech Republic and Slovakia • Not a peaceful separation in other portions of Yugoslavia (particularly Serbia & Bosnia)

  25. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition to Dominate Nationality • Big problem in Sub-Saharan Africa (Horn of Africa & Central Africa) • Ethnic Competition in the Horn of Africa • Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, & Somalia (and neighboring Sudan & South Sudan) • Ethiopia & Eritrea • Eritrea – Italian colony 1890-1945 (along Red Sea) • Ethiopia – independent until captured by Italy in 1930s (ruled until 1945) • Eritrea was given to Ethiopia by UN after WWII – expected to give some autonomy but Ethiopia dissolved legislature & banned language • 1961-1991 – civil war, many fled to Sudan, emperor Haile Selassie • 1993 – Eritrea became a new country; 1998 – fight over location of border • Eritrea – 5 million; ½ Christian, ½ Muslim (9 major ethnic groups); sense of national loyalty & fight against Ethiopia are sources of unity • Ethiopia – still multi-ethnic; Amharans (Christians) in power until 1990s and in the center; Oromo (Muslim fundamentalists) are largest (40%) group and found in south; Tigres (Christians) in north

  26. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition in the Horn of Africa • Sudan • 40 million people – civil war since 1980s • Black Christians & animists in South • Arab Muslims in north – attempted to dominate the country • Segregation by gender, no perfume/jewelry, women fully covered, must be with a male relative, streetlights to avoid “sneaking around” • 2 million (5%) died in civil war, many migrated to south or north or to Ethiopia • 2005 agreement for autonomy in south (South Sudan became a country in July 2011) • Ethnic war in Darfur began as civil war died down (western Sudan) • Black Africans (farmers) rebelled • Muslim nomads (jangaweed) & Sudanese military crushed rebellion; 450,000 killed; 2.5 million in refugee camps in Sudan or surrounding countries such as Chad

  27. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition in the Horn of Africa • Somalia • Mostly Sunni and speak Somali • 9 million people in 6 clans (as well as sub-clans) • In north – Isaak (took control of north in 1991), Darod (ruled until 1991), Dir • In south – Digil, Hawiye (took control of south in 1991), Rahanwayn • Somalia (Italian southern colony) & Somaliland (British northern colony) combined in 1960 as independent country • Isaaks declared independent state of Somaliland – not recognized; have 20% of land and 40% of people • U.S. sent supplies and troops in 1992 after 300,000 died from famine & civil war – withdrew in 1994 as peace talks fell apart (Black Hawk Down) • Islamic militias took control in 2006 – more order than warring clans, but more supportive of terrorists • Somali pirates in Gulf of Aden and Red Sea and Indian Ocean

  28. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition in Lebanon • 4 million in 10,000 sq. km (4,000 sq. miles) • Once recreational & financial center of Middle East (capital of Beirut once called “Paris of the Middle East”) • 60% Muslim (1/2 Shia, 1/2 Sunni); 30% Christian (2/3 Maronite, 1/6 Greek Orthodox); 7% Druze (combine Islam & Christianity); 3% other • 1943 – independence; each religion was supposed to be represented in government (was a Christian majority, now a Muslim majority); Beirut divided in eastern (Christian) & western (Muslim) zones • 1975 civil war among religious groups; officially ended in 1990-91; conflict still persists though • U.S. & Israeli intervention failed in 1983 • Syria tried to control until 2005 when they were forced out; Israel intervened in 2006 • Hezbollah – terrorist group with ties to Shias; backed by Iran

  29. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Dividing Ethnicities Among More Than One State • Hard to completely segregate ethnicities when creating new countries • Dividing South Asia • British colony from 1800s until 1947 • Divided into: • India (part of India nearly cut off by Bangladesh) - Hindu • West Pakistan (now Pakistan) – Muslim • East Pakistan (became independent Bangladesh in 1971) – Muslim • East & West Pakistan were one country but separated by India • Fighting between groups over South Asia for over 1000 years • Assassination of Gandhi in 1948 – Hindu who believed in nonviolence and reconciliation with Muslims • Forward capital – Pakistan moved its capital city to Islamabad to be have greater control near the conflict region of Kashmir

  30. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Dividing Ethnicities Among More Than One State • Forced Migration in South Asia • Boundaries between religions are not exact • About 17 million on wrong side in 1947 • 6 million Muslims from India to West Pakistan • 1 million Muslims from India to East Pakistan • 6 million Hindus from West Pakistan to India • 3.5 million Hindus from East Pakistan to India • Violence as extremists from both sides attacked refugees • Sikhs migrated from West Pakistan to India (division of Punjab) • Ethnic Disputes • Boundary dispute in Kashmir (mountainous northern region)between India & Pakistan • “Line of Control” for Kashmir established in 1972 • Muslim majority on both sides – use guerilla warfare to unite with Pakistan or create own country of Kashmir • 25 million Sikhs not given own country – preferred India to Pakistan; extremists have fought for independence in Punjab

  31. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Dividing Sri Lanka Among Ethnicities • Once the British colony of Ceylon until 1948 • Island off SE coast of India • 20 million people – Sinhalese vs. Tamils • Sinhalese – 74%, southern Sri Lanka, Buddhist, speak language in Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European, migrated from India in 5th century BC • Tamils – 18%, northern Sri Lanka, Hindu, speak a Dravidian language, migrated from India in 3rd century BC • Fought for over 2,000 years but not during British rule • Civil war began in 1983 – 60,000 or more have died • Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam – rebel Tamil group; responsible for assassinating president of Sri Lanka in 1993; defeated in 2009 • Sinhalese dominate country; Tamils feel discriminated against • Cease-fire since 2002 but violence still common • Exporter of tea, coffee, cinnamon, and coconuts

  32. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Kurds – a stateless nation (an ethnic group without a self-governing country of its own but has desire for self rule) • Sunni Muslim, Indo-Iranian language • Former country of Kurdistan taken by Turkey • 30 million Kurds • 14 mil in Turkey, 6 mil in Iran, 5 mil in Iraq, & 2 mil in Syria • Have tried to rebel in Turkey, Iran, & Iraq unsuccessfully • Saddam Hussein tested chemical weapons against Kurdish rebels • Kurds persecuted by ISIS/ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq & Greater Syria) – refugees trying to flee to Turkey • Other examples of stateless nations: • Sindhis, Sikhs, Kashmiri in Pakistan/India; Tamils in Sri Lanka • Balochs in Pakistan/Afghanistan/Iran • Chechens (Ichkeria), Circassians, Tatars in Russia • Uyghurs (East Turkestan), Tibetans in China • Quebecois in Canada • Acehnese in Indonesia • Shan, Hmong, and Rohingya in SE Asia • Assyrians in Turkey/Iran/Iraq/Syria • Occitans, Basques in France/Spain

  33. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic cleansing (ethnic purification) – forced removal of an ethnic group by another from a territory; the goal is not to defeat or subjugate an enemy but to get rid of them • Genocide – mass destruction of an ethnic group (systematic, deliberate, planned) • Genocide and ethnic cleansing are not the same – ethnic cleansing may turn into genocide • WWII & Holocaust – Jews murdered during, post-WWII boundary changes led to more ethnic conflict • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Balkan Peninsula is ethnically diverse • Creation of Multi-Ethnic Yugoslavia • North was in Austro-Hungarian Empire • South was in Ottoman empire – lost territory to Austro-Hungary • WWI – started when Serb nationalist assassinated Archduke Ferdinand of Austro-Hungary • After WWI, Yugoslavia created to unite Slavs with similar languages

  34. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Ethnic Diversity in Former Yugoslavia • Ruled by Communist dictator Tito 1953-1980 • 7 neighbors: Austria, Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania (1st 3 democratic, last 4 communist) • 6 republics: Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro (each given limited autonomy) • 5 nationalities: Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs, Slovenes (Bosnia – mix of Serbs, Croats, & Bosnian Muslims) • 4 languages: Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene • 3 religions: Catholic (Croats & Slovenes in north), Orthodox (Serbs & Macedonians in east), Islam (Bosnians & Montenegrins in south) • 2 alphabets: Roman (Croatian & Slovene) and Cyrillic (Serbian & Macedonian) • 1 dinar: unit of currency (common economic interests) • Government was stable; young people identified as Yugoslavian

  35. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Destruction of Multi-ethnic Yugoslavia • Rivalries resurfaced after Tito’s death in 1980s • Capital & largest city: Belgrade (in Serbia) • 1990s – separated into 5 republics; 2006 – Montenegro separated from Serbia • Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia • Ethnically mixed – 48% Bosnian Muslim or Bosniak(in ¼ of country), 37% Serb (in ½ of country), & 14% Croat (in ¼ of country) • Serbs & Croats fought to remain/reunite with Serbia or Croatia • Ethnic cleansing & genocide of Muslims; Serbs separated from Serbia by Muslim territory (Muslims in an ethnic enclave) • Sarajevo – capital & largest city of Bosnia • UN peacekeepers (1992-1995), NATO military involvement 1995-96 • Slobodan Milosevic former (Serbian president) charged for war crimes in 1998 (died in prison without a verdict in 2006)

  36. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo • Serbia is still multi-ethnic • Kosovo – southern portion of Serbia; 90% Albanian (Kosovars) • Serbia had historical control until 1389 (lost to Ottomans) • Very limited autonomy for Kosovo under Tito • Ethnic cleansing by Serbs – forced 750,000 of 2 million Albanians out (mostly to refugee camps in Albania) • NATO bombing campaign & 50,000 troops; UN administration in Kosovo (1999) • Declared independence in 2008 – recognized by 108 UN member states • Balkanization • Balkanized – describes an area that cannot be successfully organized into 1 or more stable states due to complex ethnic mix • Balkanization – the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnic groups • Led to WWI, more problems now after fall of communism

  37. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Central Africa • Hutus (original settlers & farmers of Rwanda & Burundi) vs. Tutsis (nomadic cattle herders from Kenya 400 years ago) • Tutsis (15% of pop.) took control of kingdom and ruled Hutus • German control 1899-WWI; Belgium from WWI – 1962 • Europeans reinforced differences (preference given to Tutsis) • 1994 – presidents of Rwanda & Burundi died in plane crash (cause unknown but Tutsis blamed by Hutus) during peace talks between Hutu gov’t & Tutsi rebels • Hutu extremists led genocide against Tutsis (approx. 500,000 killed) – many fled as refugees • Tutsi rebels joined by Ugandan Tutsis and retaliated against Hutus and seized control of Rwandan gov’t • 3 mil of the 7 mil Hutus fled Rwanda into Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Uganda, Tanzania, & Burundi • Conflict spread into neighboring countries

  38. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Central Africa • Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo or DRC) civil war • Tutsis overthrew President Mobutu SeseSeko in 1997; replaced by President Kabila (Tutsis rebelled and took control of eastern Zaire) • Mobutu had become very wealthy while country remained poor (1965-1997) • Formerly the Belgian Congo (until 1960) – source of copper, diamonds, & gold • Mobutu had tried to expel the Tutsis • Kabila assassinated in 2001; his son took over and negotiated with the rebels, but violence continues • Estimates of 1 mil – 5.4 mil have died (war, rape, famine, disease) • Joseph Kony moved his LRA (Lord’s Resistance Army) forces from Uganda to DRC in 2005 (now supposedly in Central African Republic) • Africa’s boundary problems • European colonial powers drew boundaries with little or no concern for the numerous ethnic groups (Conference of Berlin in 1884) • Independent countries mostly follow the territorial boundaries of former colonies

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