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ACE Personal Trainer Manual 5 th Edition. Chapter 11: Cardiorespiratory Training: Programming and Progressions Lesson 11.1. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE. Humans are meant to move – physical movement is essential for human survival:
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ACE Personal Trainer Manual 5th Edition Chapter 11: Cardiorespiratory Training: Programming and Progressions Lesson 11.1
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE Humans are meant to move – physical movement is essential for human survival: The organ systems involved in energy metabolism function best when subjected to regular physical challenges. Physical activity leads to improvements in work capacity, the sense of well-being, and overall health, as well as to fewer diseases. Adaptations to cardiorespiratory exercise occur in the: Muscular system Cardiovascular system Respiratory system
MUSCULAR SYSTEM ADAPTATIONS During low-intensity endurance exercise, adaptations occur in the ____________muscle fibers: Increase in size and number of mitochondria to augment aerobic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation A growth of more capillaries around the recruited muscle fibers, enhancing the delivery of oxygenated blood Potential hypertrophy – adaptations in the contractile mechanism (i.e., actin and myosin filaments) During higher-intensity exercise, ___________muscle fibers may be recruited and adapt: Increase in the number of anaerobic enzymes so that anaerobic energy production is enhanced Potential hypertrophy of contractile proteins with increased training intensity
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ADAPTATIONS • Stroke volume – the amount of blood pumped per beat • During endurance training, and with the expansion of blood volume, the heart muscle: • Will hypertrophy • Will enlarge its chambers and becoming a bigger and stronger muscle • Is able to deliver a higher cardiac output to the muscles • This increase in stroke volume is due to: • Chamber enlargement • Greater amounts of chamber filling (end-diastolic volume) • Greater chamber emptying (ejection fraction) of the heart with each beat
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ADAPTATIONS With regular exercise, the respiration muscles adapt: Allow for increased ventilation of the alveoli Improvement in strength and fatigue resistance Increased ventilation for longer periods Increase in tidal volume Reduces the relative amount of respiratory dead space at high breathing frequencies
TIME REQUIRED FOR INCREASES IN AEROBIC CAPACITY Adaptations to exercise begin with the first exercise bout. VO2max: Increases with training Reaches a peak and plateaus within about six months Ventilatory threshold: Increased capillary growth Increased mitochondrial density (size and number) Changes may continue for years To support these cardiorespiratory adaptations: Increased capacity of the muscle to store additional glycogen Enhanced ability to mobilize and use fatty acids as a fuel source
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO STEADY-STATE EXERCISE • _________________– the intensity of exercise where the energy and physiological demands of the exercise bout are met by the delivery of the physiological systems in the body • Steady-state is achieved when the following levels are stable after a short period: • Rate of oxygen uptake (VO2) • Heart rate (HR) • Cardiac output • Ventilation • Blood lactate concentration • Body temperature • Steady-state exercise duration is primarily limited by: • The willingness to continue • The availability of oxygen, muscle glycogen, and/or blood glucose
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO INTERVAL TRAINING Interval training – a few repetitions of higher-intensity exercise followed by recovery periods Anaerobic adaptations include improved tolerance for the buildup of lactate Enhances the ability to sustain higher intensities of exercise for longer periods During higher intensities – the overload on the heart to deliver blood to exercising muscles causes stroke volume to increase more so than with lower-intensity steady-state training.
COMPONENTS OF A CARDIORESPIRATORY WORKOUT There are basically three components of any training session: Warm-up phase Conditioning phase Cool-down phase Exercise programming may differ: A gradual increase from the warm-up, stabilized for conditioning, and then decreased for the cool-down Distinct transitions from the warm-up, to conditioning, to cool-down
WARM-UP PHASE Warm-up – a period of lighter exercise preceding the conditioning phase: Should last for 5–10 minutes for most healthy adults Should begin with low- to moderate-intensity exercise or activity that gradually increases in intensity The harder the conditioning phase and/or the older the exerciser, the more extensive the warm-up should be: If higher-intensity intervals are planned, include higher-intensity exercise in the latter portion of the warm-up to prepare. The warm-up should not be so demanding that it creates fatigue that would reduce performance.
CONDITIONING PHASE • Elements of the conditioning phase should be based on: • Frequency • Duration • Intensity (steady-state or interval-training) • Modality • The client’s current fitness and training goals • Consider programming higher-intensity elements fairly early in the conditioning phase. • Conclude the conditioning phase with more steady-state exercise.
COOL-DOWN PHASE The cool-down: Should be of approximately the same duration and intensity as the warm-up 5–10 minutes of low- to moderate-intensity activity Prevents the tendency for blood to pool in the extremities, which may occur when exercise ends An active cool-down helps remove metabolic waste from the muscles to be metabolized by other tissues. Stretching after the cool-down period can improve flexibility.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE Specific guidelines for adults 18–64 years: Perform ___________minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity, or 75 minutes per week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or a combination of both Additional health benefits are obtained from performing greater amounts of activity than those quantities Perform aerobic bouts that last at least 10 minutes, preferably spread throughout the week Participate in muscle-strengthening activities involving all major muscle groups at least two days per week Specific guidelines for ages 6–17: Perform at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity every day Include vigorous-intensity activity a minimum of three days per week Participate in muscle-strengthening and bone-strengthening activity a minimum of three days per week
F.I.T.T. F – _____________ I – ______________ T – ______________ T – ______________ Trainers generally progress their clients’ programs by manipulating these variables Each client’s health status, exercise tolerance, available time, and goals all affect the rate of program progression Consider adding an “E” – F.I.T.T.E. E – Enjoyable or experience: Clients should always enjoy the exercise experience Enjoyment influences the thoughts and emotions that can ultimately dictate participation and adherence rates
INTENSITY Exercise intensity – the most important element of the exercise program to monitor Methods for monitoring exercise intensity: Heart rate [% maximum heart rate (MHR); % heart-rate reserve (HRR)] Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) VO2 or metabolic equivalents (METs) Caloric expenditure Talk test/first ventilatory threshold (VT1) Blood lactate and second ventilatory threshold (VT2)
INTENSITY: HEART RATE Using percentage of MHR or HRR is the most widely used approach for programming and monitoring intensity: Accuracy requires knowledge of the individual’s MHR Given the risk of a maximal-effort test, MHR is normally determined via mathematical formulas (e.g., 220 – age) Numerous variables impact MHR: Genetics Exercise modality (e.g., MHR varies between running and cycling) Medications Body size – MHR higher in smaller clients due to smaller heart and stroke volume Altitude – lowers MHR reached due to a client’s inability to train at higher intensities Age – MHR varies significantly among people of the same age
INTENSITY: HEART RATE Concerns with 220 – age formula: Tends to overestimate MHR in younger adults Underestimates MHR in older adults This may lead to over- or underestimating exercise intensities: Overtraining – risk of injury and a potentially negative experience Undertraining – potential boredom and insufficient challenge Risk of cardiovascular complications – strongly related to inappropriately high exercise intensities Guiding exercise on the basis of estimated age-based MHR is discouraged ACSM suggests formulas with standard deviations closer to 7 bpm: 206.9 – (0.67 x age) 208 – (0.7 x age)
KARVONEN METHOD The Karvonen formula – or heart-rate reserve (HRR) – should be based on measured MHR measured to yield the most accurate results. HRR considers potential RHR differences by determining a HRR from which training intensities are calculated. This reduces discrepancies in training intensities between individuals with different RHR and accommodates the training adaptation that lowers RHR, therefore expanding HRR.
RATINGS OF PERCEIVED EXERTION RPE – a subjective numbering system shown to be capable of defining the ranges of objective exercise intensity There are two versions of the RPE scale: The classical (6 to 20) scale The contemporary category ratio (0 to 10) scale RPE ratings of moderate to hard span the range of recommended exercise training intensities. The RPE system works well for approximately 90% of people. With practice, clients can usually learn to use the scale fairly effectively.
INTENSITY: CALORIC EXPENDITURE When the human body burns fuel, oxygen (O2) is consumed, which yields calories to perform work. The number of calories produced per liter of O2 consumed varies according to the fuel utilized: 4.69 kcal per liter of O2 for fats 5.05 kcal per liter of O2 for glucose A value of 5 kcal per liter of O2 is sufficiently accurate Caloric expenditure – calculated in terms of the gross or absolute VO2 during an activity: The measured or estimated total quantity of O2 consumed per minute x 5 kcal/liter O2
INTENSITY: TALK TEST • At about the intensity of VT1, the increase in ventilation is accomplished by an increase in breathing frequency – it is no longer possible to speak comfortably. • Ask clients to recite something familiar, such as the Pledge of Allegiance. • Then ask, “Can you speak comfortably?” • If yes, the intensity is below the VT1. • If less than an unequivocal “yes,” the intensity is probably right at VT1. • If “no,” the intensity is probably above or nearer to VT2. • The talk test is based off an individual’s unique metabolic or ventilatory responses.
BLOOD LACTATE AND VT2 Lactate – produced at a higher rate as exercise intensity increases At approximately 50% power output during incremental exercise, the ability to remove lactate becomes limited, and a net accumulation of lactate in the blood begins Lactate threshold – the point when lactate production becomes greater than lactate removal, resulting in an initial rise in blood lactate values VT1 and the increase in blood lactate occur at about the same intensity VT2 – the point at which high-intensity exercise can no longer be sustained given the accumulation of lactate that begins to overwhelm the blood’s buffering system Defined as the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and represents the “shutdown” point; the HR turnpoint (HRTP) Exercise immediately below this OBLA marker represents the highest sustainable intensity. Considered an excellent marker of performance – usually lasting 20–30 minutes in duration
THRESHOLD DETECTION Schematic of the detection of the first and second thresholds based on increases in ventilation (VT1 and VT2), on lactate (LT and 4 mmol/L), and on the non-linearity of the HR increase This provides for the possibility of three effective training zones based on two thresholds.
THREE-ZONE TRAINING MODEL VT1 and VT2 provide an easy way to divide intensity into training zones that are determined without any use of MHR: Zone 1 reflects heart rates below VT1 A client can talk comfortably Zone 2 reflects heart rates from VT1 to just below VT2 The client is not sure if he or she can talk comfortably Zone 3 reflects heart rates at or above VT2 The client definitely cannot talk comfortably
DURATION Exercise duration – the amount of time spent performing the physical activity Can also be expressed as exercise quantity Benefits gained from exercise and physical activity are dose-related: Greater benefits are derived from greater quantities of activity Activity expending ≤1,000 kcal/week generally produces improvements to health Greater quantities expending ≥2,000 kcal/ week promote effective weight loss and significant improvements to overall fitness
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DURATION Exercise quantity may be performed: As one continuous bout, or Intermittent bouts Accumulated throughout the day lasting a minimum of 10 minutes each Trainers must place the needs and abilities of their clients first: Assess current conditioning levels, tolerance, and availability Select suitable durations and progressions Aspire only to attain the recommendations when appropriate
EXERCISE DURATION GUIDELINES Moderate-intensity exercise for at least 30 minutes a session, a minimum of 5 days per week for a total of 150 minutes per week, or Vigorous-intensity exercise for at least 20–25 minutes a session, a minimum of 3 days per week for a total of 75 minutes per week, or A combination of both Those seeking to manage or lose weight: 50–60 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise or activity each day, 5–7 days a week, for a total of 300 minutes, or A total of 150 minutes of vigorous exercise or activity per week, performed a minimum of three days a week, or A combination of both
PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE PROGRESSION Overload – when additional timely, appropriate stresses are placed on the organs or systems, physiological adaptations and improvements occur. The rate of progression depends on: The individual’s current conditioning level Program goals Tolerance for discomfort associated with raising training load or volume Specificity – physiological adaptations made within the body are specific to demands placed upon that body Often called the SAID principle – specific adaptations to the imposed demands A training program should progress to mimic the demands of that activity to provide the specific stimuli that elicit appropriate adaptations.
EXERCISE PROGRESSION Exercise duration – initially the most appropriate variable to manipulate Start with developing adherence: Build exercise sessions by 10%, or 5–10 minutes every week or two over the first 4–6 weeks Increase frequency, then intensity, keeping progressions consistent with the client’s goals To limit the risk or burnout or orthopedic injury from overuse: Include multiple modalities Cross-training, walking, cycling, elliptical training, etc. Include multiple variations within a modality Steady-state exercise, interval training, Fartlek training, etc.
MODES OR TYPES OF CARDIORESPIRATORY EXERCISE Cardiorespiratory exercise: Any type of activity that involves a large amount of muscle Can be performed in a rhythmic fashion Sustained for more than a few minutes Sustained moderate-intensity exercise (i.e., more than 10–15 minutes) is the key to cardiorespiratory exercise training.
EQUIPMENT-BASED CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE Treadmills Cycle ergometers Elliptical machines Rowing machines Arm ergometers A variety of other devices Calorie counts on exercise machines are estimates and will never be 100% accurate. Therefore, it is best to use them as rough benchmarks from workout to workout.
GROUP EXERCISE Common to all group exercise activities is the use of music to drive the tempo of exercise and to make the exercise more enjoyable. The intensity and type can vary enormously: Very strenuous – such as group indoor cycling or boot camp Low intensity – such as for older adults or beginners Mixed-level – progressions and regressions for all levels Specific populations – such as pre-natal, those with cancer, or other specialty groups Personal trainers working with small groups should consider the effect of music on the exercise intensity: Exercisers will tend to follow the tempo or percussive beat of music If fast-tempo music is used, the exercise intensity may be higher than intended
CIRCUIT TRAINING Sequential exercises using different muscle groups Focusing on one muscle group while a previously used group is recovering The overall metabolic rate remains high enough to elicit cardiorespiratory training effects, while still focusing on muscular components. Significant cardiorespiratory training effects came with alternating muscular strength/endurance activities with classical aerobic training in rapid sequence. Methods: A single individual rotating through several stations Groups of people rotating in an organized manner through exercise stations
OUTDOOR EXERCISE A wide variety of outdoor exercises have emerged out of recreational activities, such as: Running Canoeing Climbing Hiking Cycling Activities that require walking or running are very likely to provide cardiorespiratory training. Other outdoor activities are variable in their cardiorespiratory training effects and depend entirely on how they are performed.
SEASONAL EXERCISE • Many activities are very seasonal in their application, such as: • Cross-country skiing • Snowshoeing • Ice skating • Stand-up paddle boarding • Many seasonal activities are likely to have a large cardiorespiratory training effect. • The enjoyment and enthusiasm related to participating in different activities during different seasons suggests the value of seasonal variation.
WATER-BASED EXERCISE Reduces orthopedic loading due to buoyancy Trains different muscle groups than those used during ambulatory activities Provides effective exercise: Swimming Group classes Water polo, water volleyball, etc. Energy costs: Water walking/jogging – strongly related to water depth; increases with speed Swimming – highly variable; depends on velocity, stroke, skill, and technique
MIND-BODY EXERCISE Pilates Yoga Tai chi A variety of other forms Most often performed for reasons other than cardiorespiratory training May provide intensities comparable to that of walking
LIFESTYLE EXERCISE • Humans once got ample amounts of exercise by simply performing daily chores. • Activities can be viewed in the context of the total exercise load, and be considered comparable to walking for exercise: • Working in the yard • Mowing the lawn
ACE IFT MODEL: CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING PHASES Programming is based on the three-zone training model, using HR at VT1 and VT2 to develop individualized programs Training principles – implement by using various exercise intensity markers: Predicted values, such as %HRR or %MHR More accurately using measured HR, VT1, and VT2 Clients are categorized based on their current health, fitness levels, and goals Not every client will start in phase 1 – some will already be participating regularly Only clients with specific performance goals will reach phase 4
PHASE 1: AEROBIC-BASE TRAINING OVERVIEW Primary focus – help sedentary clients become regular exercisers by creating positive exercise experiences No fitness assessments are required prior to exercise in this phase Focus on steady-state exercise in zone 1 (below HR at VT1) Gauge by the client’s ability to talk (below talk test threshold) and/or RPE of __________________ Do not exceed a 10% increase in duration versus the week prior Progress to phase 2 when: The client can sustain steady-state cardiorespiratory exercise for 20–30 minutes in zone 1 (RPE of 3–4) The client is comfortable with assessments
