Educational Research: Qualitative Research Methods

Educational Research: Qualitative Research Methods EDU 8603 Educational Research Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Qualitative research... • Commonly called “interpretive research” …its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied

Is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices …a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known

Illuminates the “invisibility of everyday life” …by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood

Qualitative methods... • historical research • grounded theory • ethnography • phenomenology • case study • symbolic interaction • ethology • action research • ethnomethodology

historical research …studies available data to study, understand, and interpret past events

ethnography …studies cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings

case study …examines the characteristics of a particular entity, phenomenon, or person

ethology …compares the origins, characteristics, and culture of different societies

ethnomethodology …studies how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways

grounded theory …investigates how inductively-derived theory about phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting

phenomenology …considers how the experience of particular participants exhibits a unique perspective

symbolic interaction …investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others

action research …teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioner’s practice by doing or changing something

Generally speaking, qualitative researchers…. …spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldwork) …rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivity; intersubjectivity) …analyze data using interpretative lenses

…employ expressive language and voice in descriptions and explanations …seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., “waves of data”) …judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researcher’s interpretations

The general characteristics of qualitative research... Data sources are real-world situations  Data are descriptive Emphasizes a holistic approach (processes and outcomes)  Data analysis is inductive  Describes the meaning(s) of research finding(s) from the perspective of the research participants

Uses inductive reasoning… …involves developing generalizations from a limited number of specific observations or experiences …highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization

Issues in qualitative research... a.gaining entry b.contacting potential research participants c.selecting participants d.enhancing validity and reducing bias e.leaving the field

a. gaining entry... access is very much dependent upon the researcher’s personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper trust is earned, not given

b. contacting participants... gaining access dealing with gatekeeper(s) issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity

c. selecting participants... the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied utilizes purposive sampling

types of purposive sampling… …maximum variation …homogeneous …critical case …theory-based …(dis)confirming case …snowball (chain)

…extreme (deviant) case …typical case …intensity …politically important case …random purposeful

…stratified purposeful …criterion …opportunistic …combination (mixed) …convenience

two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when… …the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting …the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (“data saturation”)

The threats to validity in qualitative studies... observer bias… …invalid information resulting from the perspective the researcher brings to the study and imposes upon it observer effects… …the impact of the observer’s participation on the setting or the participants being studied

d. strategies to enhance validity and to reduce bias... extend the time for observing the setting include more participants to make the study more representative focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data

identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims

journalize one’s own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (“outliers”)

utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (“triangulation”)

e. leaving the field… The question is when and how to exit …the bonds formed with study participants complicate leaving the setting …time constraints …when the amount of accessible data is sufficient

The basic steps of qualitative research... 1.Write a tentative research proposal 2.Intensive participation in a field setting 3.Collect detailed data from field activities 4.Synthesize and interpret the meanings of the field data 5.Write the research report

1. The qualitative research proposal... defines area of study identifies setting or context of study specifies the kinds of data to be collected describes methods to be used provides the researcher’s rationale for undertaking the study identifies the study’s potential contribution(s)

2. Intensive participation in a field setting... participation: as a participant (“participant observer”) or nonparticipant approach to participation: overt or covert requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant

3. Collecting and analyzing data... primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, emails, and informal conversations multiple data sources are normative

the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session

regarding field notes… …put aside assumptions, experience context first …see phenomena through participants’ perspective …write up notes immediately following an observation

…detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary) …list key words first, then outline one’s observations

…keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate …use memos to record hunches, questions, and insights after each observation …number the lines or paragraphs for easy access

regarding interviews… …the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewee’s responses in order to gather in-depth data …the interviewer inquires into the interviewees’ attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied

…meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee

…be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions

…interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a “verbatim”)

Interview do’s and don’ts... Do listen more and talk less Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed Don’t use leading questions; do use open-ended questions (“probes”) Don’t interrupt; do wait

Do keep interviewee(s) focused Do ask for concrete details Do tolerate silence and space between interviewee’s responses; do allow the interviewee time to think Don’t be judgmental about or react to an interviewee’s opinions, views, or beliefs

Don’t engage in debate with an interviewee Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewee’s nonverbal behavior

4. Synthesis and interpretation of the meanings of field data... a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (“field notes”) involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (“managing data”) understanding emerges as data are integrated

Analyzing field data… data pieces data categories data patterns

Educational Research: Qualitative Research Methods