US Entry Into W W II

1. US Entry Into W W II

2. Causes of W W II • Rise of Totalitarian Dictators: Hitler, Mussolini, Hirohito, Franco • Nazi rearmament and aggression / expansionism: Rhineland, Austria, Sudetenland (Mussolini – Ethiopia: Japan – Manchuria, China) • Weakness of League of Nations, and Allied Appeasement (typified by Munich Conference / Agreement)

3. Failure of Munich Agreement: German invasion of Czechoslovakia • Nazi-Soviet Pact of Aug. 1939; 10 Year Non-Aggression Pact; ensured Germany would not have to fight on two fronts • German invasion of Poland, Sept. 1, 1939 • France and Britain declare war on Germany, Sept. 3rd 1939 • 7 month Phony War; followed by invasion of Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg

4. Fall of France, June 22nd 1940 • Invasion of Britain Aug. 1940 : Operation Sea Lion, Battle of Britain, Luftwaffe v RAF; • June 22nd 1941: Operation Barbarossa; invasion of Soviet Union, preceded by invasion of Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Greece

5. US Response to events in Europe • In response to the rise of Totalitarianism and tension in Europe, the US passed the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, 1937 • These Acts enforced a mandatory arms embargo (non-military goods would be sold on a Cash and Carry basis) against both victim and aggressor in any military conflict • and made it illegal for US citizens to travel on ships of warring nations - Goal was to prevent the US becoming involved in any conflict in Europe / to prevent an occurrence of the events which many believed had pressured the US into WW1 (no Lusitania type incident)

6. In response to the actual outbreak of war, the Neutrality Act of 1939 introduced a revision, allowing the sale of arms and ammunition on a cash and carry basis to belligerents (obviously, only to Allies – benevolent neutrality) • At the very least (if the US wasn’t going to fight), FDR believed, the US should make armaments available to the Allied armies to help them counteract the remarkably productive German munitions industry • Under the Act, US ships were forbidden from entering the War Zone

7. The US was slowly moving away from Isolationism, though still neutral. Like W W I, the US was first involved in an Economic War with the Allies, against the Axis powers • In response to the Fall of France and the Invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion / Battle of Britain) FDR also persuades Congress to make preparations in the event of a Nazi invasion of the US, by increasing the military budget to $37b • He also introduced the Selective Training and Services Act – the first peacetime Draft – to increase US troops levels to 1.2m and 800,000 reserves

8. Direct support for the Allies increased when FDR set up dummy / mock private companies through which he gave military equipment to the British (supposedly bought by Britain) • And he also circumvented the cash-and-carry provisions of the Neutrality Act by trading 50 American destroyers in return for the right to build 8 US bases on British territory (Newfoundland, Bermuda, and British Guiana) • FDR reasoned that if the US helped the Allies to win, with this kind of help, then the US wouldn’t have to fight later – the Nazis would not become a threat to the US

9. In the summer of 1940 a heated debate took place in the US between isolationists and interventionists • Isolationistsin the America First Committee (inc. Lindbergh) argued that the US should concentrate only on defending its own shores – not provide any help to the Allies. • The Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies, an internationalist / interventionist group supported increased US assistance to the Allies but opposed actual declaring war (economic aid / materials to avoid the need for US to get involved militarily) • The Fight for Freedom Committee / interventionists urged an immediate declaration of war

10. FDR defeated Willkie in the 1940 Presidential Election: afterwards began to increase US role / make a bigger commitment, as Nazis advanced and the situation in Europe deteriorated • With Britain virtually bankrupt, and no longer able to meet the cash and carry requirements, he introduced Lend Lease in Dec. 1940, started in March 1941 • He wanted to eliminate the payments, yet satisfying those who were against blatant US intervention in the war – so used the term Lend and Lease. The US basically gave armaments to any nation deemed "vital to the defenses of the US“ for free.

11. The US became the “Arsenal of Democracy” • FDR soon faced another series of problems; ensuring that US arms supplies actually reached Britain and France – he responded by ordering that the US navy escort the lend lease ships as far as Iceland, and the British would take over from there through the war zone • When Germany invaded the USSR, Lend Lease was extended to include the USSR, eventually giving the Soviets $11b in military equipment / weapons

12. The US was propping up Hitler's foes on both fronts, and the navy was playing an active role in protecting the flow of goods to Europe…..Economic War with Germany had expanded • The US was also involved in an Ideological War with Totalitarianism / Fascism from 1941 • FDR’s idealism was seen in his Four Freedoms…of his Jan. 1941 speech to Congress (Read speech / Handout)

13. FDR’s Four Freedom’s • The first is freedom of speech and expression- everywhere in the world. • The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way- everywhere in the world. • The third is freedom from want- which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peace time life for its inhabitants- everywhere in the world. • The fourth is freedom from fear- which translated into world terms, means a worldwide reduction of armaments [military forces and equipment] to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor- anywhere in the world.

14. The Atlantic Charter • And in the Atlantic Charter, July-Aug, 1941, agreed with Churchill on a battleship off Newfoundland – signed later by 15 more countries, inc. the USSR (Read Excerpt / Handout….make notes on 4 Freedoms) • First, their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other • Second, they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned… • Third, they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them

15. The Atlantic Charter • Fourth, they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity • Fifth, they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security

16. The Atlantic Charter • Sixth, after the final destruction of Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all the lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want • Seventh, such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance

17. The Atlantic Charter • Eighth, they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea, or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measures which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments.

18. Roosevelt and Churchill at Atlantic Charter Meeting, 1941 President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874–1965) confer on board a ship near Newfoundland during their summit meeting of August, 1941. During the conference, they signed the Atlantic Charter. Upon his return to Great Britain, Churchill told his advisers that Roosevelt had promised to "wage war" against Germany and do "everything" to "force an incident." (Franklin D. Roosevelt Library)

19. By late 1941….it seemed only a matter of time before the US became an official belligerent • FDR felt it was inevitable and may have welcomed it (like Wilson)……but, FDR was convinced that public opinion would support a declaration of war only in the event of an actual enemy attack.

20. In Sept. 1941, Nazi submarines began a concerted campaign against US naval vessels protecting Lend Lease ships – US destroyers the Greer and Kearney were sunk killing 11 Americans • FDR responded by ordering US ships to fire on German submarines "on sight". • In Oct., Nazi submarines torpedoed the Reuben James, killing over 100 sailors. • The US had, in effect, become involved in an undeclared naval war against Germany (as in W W I) (Economic, Ideological, and now Undeclared Naval).

21. The public was now moving more and more away from isolationism in response to the sinking of these US vessels. • Congress responded by dropping the Neutrality Act of 1939 and merchant ships were armed and were permitted to sail into the war zones with their cargoes • If US entry into the war had not happened because of events in the Pacific, then it would have come as a result of future incidents in the Atlantic. Entry into the WW II seemed inevitable because of events in the Atlantic – the surprise was that events in the Pacific brought War

22. US Gradually Moves Towards War: Summary • Neutrality Acts, 1935, 1936, 1937; no arms sales to belligerents; no US passengers on belligerent ships; Cash and Carry of US non-military goods only; no loans • Sale of arms permitted to Allies on Cash and Carry basis, 1939 Neutrality Act • Gradual military budget increase, reaching $37b, 1939 • Arms to Britain through dummy companies

23. 50 destroyers to Britain for naval bases, 1940 • Selective Services and Training Act, 1940; peacetime draft • Four Freedoms Speech • Lend-Lease Act, 1940; no charge for weapons • Lend-Lease extended to USSR, 1941 • Atlantic Charter • Robin Moor, Greer, Kearney, Reuben James, attacked by German U Boats, 1941…merchant ships now armed and protected by navy • Undeclared Economic War, Ideological War to Undeclared Naval War....Before Actual Declaration of War

24. US Response to Events in the Pacific • Japanese militarism / expansion (raw materials, Depression, unemployment, nationalism); invasion of Manchuria 1932 • US is concerned about access to China / Open Door; refuses to recognize the new Manchurian Govt. or any territorial gains seized by force – issues the Stimson Doctrine to that effect • US recognizes Communist regime in USSR, 1933

25. But the US did not cooperate with the League of Nations in imposing sanctions against the Japanese (Japan’s response to the sanctions was to withdraw from the League) • In 1934 Japan also terminated the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and began to build more and bigger naval vessels

26. 1937 – Japan invaded China; captures Peking, Shanghai, and then Nanjing; Rape of Nanking / Nanjing (300,000 victims) • FDR condemns the invasion: threatens a US Quarantine or Embargo against Japan • But there was angry reaction in the US to his speech from isolationists who feared that this would lead to war • Faced with strong opposition, FDR backed down – the only action taken was to give loans to the Chinese govt. to help it buy military supplies

27. 1937, Dec - Japan sank a US ship in Chinese waters - Panay - two killed and thirty wounded...but then apologized and paid an indemnity to silence US anger - not yet ready for war with US, although Japanese soldiers occupying China continued to subject US citizens to intimidation • US does not respond, accepts apology

28. Japan, in July 1940, announced a plan for the future of Asia called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which was really a plan for a Japanese empire to include much of China, Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. • In Sept 1940 Japan signs the Rome - Berlin - Tokyo Axis, promising that each would defend the other if attacked. • In response the US embargoed sales of scrap metals, chemicals, machine parts to Japan

29. 1940, September - Japan occupies part of French Indochina (Vietnam), encouraged by the fall of France to Germany…moving ominously close to the Philippines • US reacted to this by placing an embargo on supplies of iron ore, steel, rubber, oil, aviation fuel, chemicals, machine parts (part Quarantine) - this pushed Japan even closer still to the Axis Powers.

30. 1941, July - Japan occupied the remainder of French Indochina • The US freezes all Japanese assets in the US and ended all trade with Japan • Diplomatic talks between Japan and the US broke down in Oct; Japan refused to pull out of China, demanding free reign in region – Admiral Tojo took over as Prime Minister, and Japan began formulating plans for expansion into the Dutch East Indies, Malaysia and the Philippines to find access to the supplies, esp. oil, cut off by the US

31. Japan expected a US reaction if it invaded the Philippines and that the US response wd come from Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. • It was felt that if the war came that Japan would have little chance of success if it fought it in a conventional way - it was decided to launch a surprise attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor, strike a knock out blow at the naval base there, at the same time as the other invasions took place. • 1941 - Dec. 7. attack on Pearl Harbor

32. The US was well aware of Japanese movement in the Pacific but expected Japanese attacks to take place against Britain or Dutch possessions in the South - British Malaya or the Philippines. • Felt Japan would not dare to strike directly on US forces at Pearl Harbor • No precautions had been taken against an attack, ships were bunched up defenselessly in the harbor and planes were parked in rows on the airstrips. Easy targets. • The results of the raid were catastrophic - within 2 hrs, the US lost 8 battleships, 3 cruisers, 4 other vessels, 188 airplanes, and several vital shore installations.

33. Over 2,400 Americans were killed, 1,000 wounded. But fortunately the 4 aircraft carriers - the heart of the Pacific Fleet - were out to sea on maneuvers and survived. • Some historians suggest the US / FDR knew about the impending attack on Pearl Harbor, but let it happen – excuse to enter war • The attack united Americans in a fervent commitment to war - US territory had been attacked – what FDR was unable to achieve in the past several years, almost total support for the war, compared to WWI - a direct attack on US territory had to be addressed…killed isolationism. • The US declared war on Japan on Dec 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the US on Dec 11.

34. The U.S.S. West Virginia, Pearl Harbor The stricken U.S.S. West Virginia was one of the eight battleships caught in the surprise Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, Hawai'i, on December 7, 1941. In this photograph, sailors on a launch attempt to rescue a crew member from the water as oil burns around the sinking ship. (U.S. Army)

35. Great DebateIsolationism v Internationalism? See separate power point

36. US and W W II. • Only nation fighting both in Europe and in the Pacific • Committed to defeat Germany as first priority, and fight a holding action against Japan until then • Defeat of Germany would mean that Japan was more likely to crumble • Agreed with Britain that the war against the Axis powers would continue until they surrendered unconditionally

37. US Involvement in North Africa and Europe. • 1942; US invasion of North Africa, under Eisenhower; aid to Montgomery against Rommel….Operation Torch • Stalin furious, wants opening of a Western Front • 1943 Casablanca Conference: FDR and Churchill agree to invade Italy, the soft underbelly of Europe, and to insist on an "unconditional surrender" by Germany…later the US applies this to Japan too • Stalin is again outraged • Italy surrenders after fall of Mussolini – changes sides

38. June 6th, 1944 D-Day / Operation Overlord, under Eisenhower's Command. Finally, after meeting at Teheran, Stalin gets the Western Front he had been requesting • Normandy landing. Air attacks. French underground. Liberation of Paris. • 1945- Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's last desperate attempt to break through Allied lines is unsuccessful. Allies invade Germany. Hitler commits suicide. Germany surrenders unconditionally, May 8th, 1945. VE day • FDR re-elected to 4th term in 1944. But dies, April 1945. Truman becomes President.

39. US v Japan in the Pacific. • After Pearl Harbor, the Japanese capture the Dutch East Indies, Burma, Wake Island, Guam, Philippines, Hong Kong, Malaya, … • By May 1942, the US starts to reverse the tide; Battle of Coral Sea (near Australia): aircraft from aircraft carriers do battle, not battleships; US victory • Battle of Midway: major victory for the US: reduced threat to Pearl Harbor / Hawaii: Huge losses for Japan; US now seizes initiative: US Admiral Nimitz

40. US takes Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands: huge losses on both sides; Japanese fight to the death - kamikaze • 1944 - US, under McArthur captures the Marshall Islands. Safeguards Australia. • US adopts "island hopping" (leapfrogging) strategy: jumps over heavily fortified Japanese occupied islands.

41. US captures the Mariana Islands - near enough from which to attack Japanese • 1945 - US captures Iwo Jima – huge losses • After the Battle of Leyte, the US recaptures the Philippines. • US captures Okinawa – near enough to Japan itself for air attacks • Several US air attacks on Japanese cities. March 1945, Tokyo is fire bombed, destroying 250,000 buildings and killing 83,000 people

42. But Japan will not surrender unconditionally • Truman estimates it will cost the lives of up to 1m marines in a conventional invasion • At Potsdam, Truman warns Japan that it should surrender or be destroyed; Atomic Bomb had been developed in the Manhattan project, at Alamogordo, New Mexico: key scientists are Oppenheimer and Einstein • August 6 - Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, instantly killing 80,000 and another 100,000 suffered from burns and radiation. • Japan will still not surrender unconditionally.

43. August 8 - USSR declares war on Japan, as promised at Teheran. Captures Korea and Manchuria • August 9 - Atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki, killing 40,000. • August 13 - Japan surrenders / conditional: US agrees that the Emperor Hirohito can remain on • September 2nd - McArthur officially accepts Japan’s surrender on board the SS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. VJ Day.

44. Truman and the Atomic Bomb / Read Handout • Learns of the project 12 days (April 25th) after taking over from FDR - from Stimson, Sec. of War • Told him it would probably be available in four months • Stimson supported using the bomb to end the war, but he also pointed out some serious problems that the bomb would pose for the world after the war – a possible atomic arms race and the danger of an atomic war

45. To address these challenges, Stimson proposed that Truman appoint a committee to advise him on policy regarding atomic weapons: Truman took the advice and set up and Interim Committee • The goal of Truman and the Committee appears to have been to find the most effective way to use the bomb to shock Japan into surrendering. • Even though the Russians had promised to enter the war against Japan by August 8th, many American military leaders assumed than an amphibious landing on the Japanese mainland would be necessary to end the war. The cost in American lives would be high, and many believed that using the bomb could end the war without and invasion.

46. The Opinions • The quotes expressed are by Henry L. Stimson, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ralph A. Bard, and James Franck. • Stimson’s statement expresses the majority opinion, that the bomb had to be used to end the war quickly and to save American lives. Secretary of States James Byrnes and the Interim Committee supported this…. other statements question the use of the weapon.

47. Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War • “In the light of the alternative, which, on a fair estimate, were open to us, I believe that no man, in our position and subject to our responsibilities, holding in his hands a weapon of such possibilities for accomplishing this purpose and saving those lives, could have failed to use it and afterwards looked his countrymen in the face.”

48. General Dwight D. Eisenhower (Supreme Allied Commander) • “I told him [Stimson] I was against it on two counts. First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn’t necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon.”

49. Ralph A. Bard, Undersecretary of the Navy • “I have had a feeling that before the bomb is actually used against Japan that Japan should have some preliminary warning of say two or three days in advance… The position of the United States as a great humanitarian nation and the fair play attitude of our people generally is responsible in the main for this feeling.”

50. James Franck, University of Chicago • “If the United States were to be the first to release this new means of indiscriminate destruction upon mankind, she would sacrifice public support throughout the world, precipitate the race for armaments, and prejudice the possibility of reaching an international agreement on the future control of such weapons.”