Critical Thinking

1. Critical Thinking Sanjay Goel & Sal Belardo

2. Objective • The Objective of today’s workshop • To help enhance your ability to learn. • Provide you with tools to focus and think critically • Increase your effectiveness in learning, writing and speaking.

3. Critical Thinking: Socrates From Socrates we get the great emphasis on argument and critical thinking. Socrates chose to make argument the main thinking tool. Within argument, there was to be critical thinking: Why do you say that? What do you mean by that?

4. Critical Thinking: Plato From Plato we get the notion that there is the "truth" somewhere but that we have to search for it to find it. The way to search for the truth is to use critical thinking to attack what is untrue.

5. Critical Thinking: Aristotle From Aristotle we get a type of logic based on identity and non-identity, on inclusion and exclusion.

6. Critical Thinking “Critical Thinking is purposeful goal directed thinking. It is an art of thinking about what one is thinking about in order to make it more accurate, clear and defensible” --Sal Belardo

7. Brain & Intelligence - Historical • Aristotle believed that brain size was related to intelligence.” • Later it was believed that cranial volume reflected intelligence hence (Paul Broca) • Women were inferior to men • Non-Europeans were inferior to Europeans • His work was later superceded by the neuronal doctrine (Waldayer) • Neurons are the processing units of the brain.

8. How do you Think?: Brain

9. Brain: Complexity Human Jack Rabbit

10. The Brain: A Network of Cells “The adult human brain weights about 3 pounds and consists of about 100 billion nerve cells or neurons. These neurons are responsible for the transmission of information throughout the brain. The outer wrinkled mantle of the brain called the cerebral cortex contains about 30 billion of these neurons connected to each other by means of a million billion neuronal connections called synapses. The neurons communicate with each other via these connections.”

11. Neurons

12. Brain & Intelligence - Neurons • Current models postulate that intelligence and complexity are the result of the properties of neurons and how they are connected. Not only the number of neurons but physiological properties of neurons are also relevant: channels, cable properties, and the type of synapses.

13. Brain: A Computer? “The human brain is an amazing piece of engineering that allows us to process billions of bits of information within a compact, powerful, continuously changing computer that we carry on our shoulders our entire lives” -- Nancy C. Andreasen

14. My Brain “My Brian is my second-favorite organ” -- Woody Allen

15. Functional Area of Brain

17. Synapse

18. Knowledge “Knowledge is a gigantic and ever-growing sphere in space and time, made up of millions of interconnecting, crisscrossing pathways” -- James Burke

19. Learning • Learning is a process by which we acquire new knowledge • Learning occurs by creation of neurons and associations between existing neurons. • If you stop learning your overall mental capacity and performance will decline. This is because of the weakening and eventual loss of brain networks • Over varying periods of time you’ll notice a gradual but steady decrease in your mental agility if you do not nourish and enhance these networks

20. Memory • We are our memories • It is the process by which we retain knowledge over time • Episodic Memory • Semantic Memory • Memory is established in multiple stages • Short Term • Long Term

21. Attention • “Attention is the spotlight that our brains use to identify stimuli within the context of time and space to select what is relevant and to ignore what is irrelevant” • Neurons fatigue in 3-5 mins of sustained activity • Recover but become inefficient in a few cycles • Brain tunes off when only factual information is provided to it • Key to stay focused is to stimulate different parts of the brain • Critical thinking spreads neuronal load across the brain

22. Can Learning be Enhanced? • Key to increasing your mental abilities is to increase your cognitive skills. • Cognition refers to your ability to attend, identify and act. • It also refers to thoughts, moods, inclination, decisions, and actions • It includes alertness, concentration, speed, learning, memory, problem solving, creativity and mental endurance.

23. Cognition: Critical Thinking? • One demonstrated way to increase cognitive skills is to use a collection of tools and techniques that can be classified under the rubric critical thinking • These tools were developed by philosophers and thinkers over the last three thousand years • Business leaders do not relate well to these tools

24. Critical Thinking • We propose to introduce a Rosetta Stone for Critical Thinking which will be more orthogonal to the managerial mindset Classical Critical Thinking Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied Critical Thinking • Syllogisms • Truth Table • Chain Arguments • Inductive Reasoning • Deductive Reasoning • Cognitive • Affective • Psychomotor • Experimentation • Reasoning • Communication

26. Critical Thinking Definition Critical thinking is goal directed thinking. It is the art of thinking about what one is thinking about in order to make it more clear, more accurate, and ultimately more defensible

27. Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Rosetta Stone of Critical Thinking Three Domains of Learning • Cognitive Domain: Deals with the development of ascending levels of intellectual abilities and skills. • Affective Domain: Describes levels of the internalization process of the learner’s interest, attitudes, values, appreciations, and behavior. • Motor Skills Domain: Deals with physical activity requiring coordination.

28. Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Cognitive Domain • Knowledge: I can define it • Comprehension: I understand it • Application: I have used it • Analysis: I know how each part works • Synthesis: I can adapt it to other uses • Evaluation: I know when to use it

29. Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Cognitive Domain In the Domain of Finance: Net Present Value • Knowledge: I have heard the term before. Isn’t that a method for ranking investment proposals. • Comprehension: The Net Present Value is equal to the present value of future returns, discounted at the marginal cost of capital, minus the present value of the cost of the investment. • Application : I used it recently to help make a decision concerning two investment proposals. • Analysis: The equation consists of several factors: the net cash flows, the marginal cost of capital, the initial cost of the project, and the project’s expected life. • Synthesis: I believe that this method can also be used as part of a method to determine the value of a firm’s intangible assets. • Evaluation: I know when to use NPV and when to use the IRR method

30. Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Cognitive Domain In the Domain of Prototyping • Knowledge: I have heard the term before. Isn’t that a method for developing an application in stages where at each stage the user works with the application and suggests additional functionality. • Comprehension: Prototyping addresses the situation where users aren’t able to specify what they want a system to do. You give them a simple version with only a few features and they learn more about what they want by using the system. • Application: Last semester I completed a system for a hospital that followed the prototyping approach. It took 12 versions, but the hospital administrator was pleased. • Analysis: The learn by using method is really quite powerful. While it was originally intended as a learning devise for users, it also works as a learning tool for the developer. I have found that I learn as much about the functional area as the user learns about the system.s functionality.

31. Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Cognitive Domain In the Domain of Prototyping • Synthesis: I see a good application of prototyping in the design phase. By creating several system designs, in phases much like in prototyping, we can cut the design time, have a better chance of getting the correct design in place, and save on programming changes. • Evaluation: I think we should measure the characteristics of the system to be developed and based on those characteristics decide which SDM to use. Prototyping is especially useful when we are under severe time constraints. On the other hand, prototyping is not appropriate when data resources are not available, when users cannot commit the required time, or when we don’t have appropriate software support tools..

32. Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Affective Domain • Receiving: I will listen even though I am not sure of the value of what I am listening to. • Responding: Something important is happening here, perhaps I need to become more involved, even committed. • Valuing: There is a value that underlies the behavior exhibited in the previous step. • Organization of a value complex. Organizing and prioritizing values so that they enable one to act in a consistent way. • Characterization: To be known by the values that one honestly and consistently exhibits.

33. Learning by Experimentation Scientific Method • State the Problem • Develop Hypotheses • Develop an Experiment • Gather Data • Test Hypotheses • Draw Conclusions • Report on Results

34. A Critical Thinking Exercise ...The objective of this Essay is to assert one very simple principle, as entitled to govern absolutely the dealings of society with the individual in the way of compulsion and control, whether the means be physical force in the form of legal penalties or the moral coercion of public opinion. The principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is, self-protection. The only purpose for which power can be rightly exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do so or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. There are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil, in case he do otherwise. To justify that, from which it is desired to deter him must be calculated to produce evil to some one else. The only part of the conduct of any one for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence, of right absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign. From J.S. Mill’s Essay On Liberty

35. Applying Critical Thinking Four Categories of Questions • Summary/Definition: What are we talking about? What are key terms and phrases? • Analysis: How does the “system” work? • Hypothesis: What will happen if? • Evaluation: Is this a good idea, system, device. etc.?

36. Applying Critical Thinking Category 1: Summary/Definition At this level, the critical thinker must attempt to determine relevant knowledge. Here the term knowledge means basic facts. It does not imply comprehension The critical thinker attempts to determine the glossary of terms that apply to the problem. Questions that can be employed include: Who, when, what is? Other questions include: Can you give me an example? In the event that someone is talking or writing about the computer language JAVA, an appropriate set of questions might include: What is JAVA, who uses it, and when? Here the critical thinker attempts to determine the various entities appropriate to a problem or question, and the key terms that apply to these entities.

37. Applying Critical Thinking Category 2: Analysis Here the critical thinker attempts to focus on the parts and their functionality as they relate to the whole. Processes are important here. Continuing with the JAVA example, the critical thinker would want to know the steps involved in using JAVA to develop a warehouse object. Examples of analysis questions include: How, what is the reason for, what other examples are there? What is the relationship between x and y? During analysis, the critical thinker is looking for evidence or proof of support... cause and effect. Category 3: Hypothesis Here the critical thinker tends to focus on hypothetical consequences. Questions that are employed include: What would happen if x occurs? If y had happened what would be different? These questions help us understand possible consequences that might not be apparent at first. A question such as what do linked list do to your JAVA program is such an example.

38. Applying Critical Thinking Category 4: Evaluation Here we are looking for a judgement. Questions such as: Is x good or bad, effective or ineffective are examples of evaluation type questions. Questions such as: What are the advantages or disadvantages are designed to determine whether the material presented is of any value and can be employed. A specific question might be: How helpful is JAVA requires an assessment of the tool. Here we look for evidence to support the conclusion.

39. Applying Critical Thinking • Summary/Definition: What is J.S. Mill basically saying here? What is meant by “harm to others”? What does remonstrating mean? • Analysis : Why does Mill say what he says? What evidence does Mill use to support his ideas? How do Mill’s views relate to those of his contemporaries? • Hypothesis: How might Mill’s ideas be different if he were writing today? What if we applied this to a discussion of smoking? • Evaluation: Do I/you agree with J.S. Mill? Is Mill persuasive in his discussion of On Liberty? Why? What would be the advantages of adopting Mill’s views?

40. Analyzing John S Mill’s EssayOn Liberty You might, in thinking about what Mill wrote, think about his contemporaries or the people and events that influenced him….Individuals such as Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, De Tocqueville, Napoleon, and events such as the Napoleonic Wars, The Corn Laws, the expulsion of crofters in Scotland, etc.

41. Communication Through Critical Thinking Reasoning • Characteristics • The Eight Elements of Reasoning • Universal Intellectual Standards • Critical Intellectual Traits

42. Communication Through Critical Thinking Characteristics of Critical Thinkers • Conceptualization: property and processes • Reason not Prejudice: other opinions • Weigh the data: assumptions and quality • Attitude of Inquiry: do not just follow others • Think for Themselves: do not automatically take on other’s beliefs • Fair Thinkers: remove bias • Make Judgments on the Basis of Facts: but

43. Communication Through Critical Thinking Reasoning The Eight Elements of Reasoning • Purpose or Goal • Question • Ideas or Concepts • Assumptions • Data, Information, and Facts • Inferences • Point of View • Consequences and Implications

44. Communication Through Critical Thinking The Eight Elements of Reasoning Element # 1: Purpose Purpose is concerned with what we want to accomplish when we reason. In other words what is our intent, or that of the presenter? We may wish to show that learning can dramatically improve innovation. Element #2: Question What is the consequential question being presented or addressed? Is there one? Why should I or you be interested in the topic? Is the question /problem related to the purpose? Questions related to the above purpose might include--Can critical thinking be employed in organizations to enhance learning and hence innovation?

45. Communication Through Critical Thinking The Eight Elements of Reasoning Element # 3: Ideas or Concepts It is imperative that the ideas and concepts be clearly stated, and used correctly. In keeping with the idea of the role that learning plays in innovation, ideas or concepts such those of Heizenberg, Capra, and Maturana and Varela, should be discussed. Element # 4: Assumptions Assumptions are ideas that are taken for granted. Reasoning is based on our existing assumptions. Identifying and testing assumptions is essential to ensuring correctness. Surfacing and testing assumptions enables us to prioritize them, and determine which we need to focus on more. Following the innovation problem, we assume that people learn in one of three ways--by experimentation, by speculation and by what others tell them. We might correctly assume therefor that learning can be greatly enhanced by improved communication.

46. Communication Through Critical Thinking The Eight Elements of Reasoning Element # 5: Data, Information, Facts It is important to know the source and accuracy of the data, information and facts employed in an argument Today, much of what we use by way of data comes from the Internet yet using the Internet is often a questionable way to arrive at facts. It is important to restrict one’s claims to those that can be supported. Element # 6: Inferences Inferences are what people create from concepts and assumptions. It is essential that a well developed line of reasoning be presented. I may reason that because it is dark and cloudy, that it will probably rain today. Here I am basing my inference on some well established data, and knowledge concerning past experiences. Infer only what evidence implies. Identify the assumptions which lead you to your inference.

47. Communication through Critical Thinking The Eight Elements of Reasoning Element # 7: Point of View It is important to understand the point of view of the presenter. Does the point of view exclude other points of view. Does the presenter, or do you for that matter, show a sensitivity to alternative points of view? For example in explaining how people learn, does the Gestalt psychologist consider the point of view of the Behaviorist? Element 8: Consequences and Implications This is really the point where the individual, regardless of whether he be a presenter or a reviewer, must evaluate the consequences drawn from the reasoning.

48. Communication Through Critical Thinking Reasoning The Universal Standards Standard # 1: Clarity Statements must be clear because if they are not it is difficult to determine whether they are accurate or relevant. For example, the statement “what we have here is a communication problem is not clear. Ways to ensure clarity include questions such as: Could you elaborate further or could you give me an example? Standard # 2: Accuracy A statement might be clear, but not accurate. For example the statement” critical thinking will increase our ability to learn” is not accurate. Ways to ensure accuracy include questions such as: Is it really true, or how could we check on that?

49. Communication Through Critical Thinking Reasoning The Universal Standards Standard # 3: Precision A statement can be clear and accurate, but not precise. For example, the statement “if we learn to think critically, we will be able to improve our ability to communicate” is not precise. Questions designed to improve precision include:Could you give me more details, or could you be more specific? Standard # 4: Relevance Statements can be clear, accurate, and precise but not relevant. For example, the statement “communication will make us better citizens is not relevant to innovation. Ways to ensure relevance include questions such as:’How is that connected to the question, or how does that bear on the issue?

50. Communication Through Critical Thinking Reasoning The Universal Standards Standard # 5: Depth A statement can contain all of the above standards but not have sufficient depth to determine whether the reasoning is dealing with the most significant facts. Beware of structural or surface terms. Ways to ensure depth include questions such as: How does your answer address the complexities in question? Standard # 6 Breadth Breadth ensures that various points of view are examined. In the political area, one party might delve deeply into an area but fail to take into account the other party’s point of view. This is dangerous because it avoids important stakeholders and possibly damaging assumptions. Ways to ensure breadth include questions such as: Is there another way to look at this, or do we need another point of view?