Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice • Jon W. Wiles and Joseph C. Bondi Elementary School: Programs & Issues Susan Dulong Langley and Diane Modest American International College EDC 475 Curriculum Design & Development February 12, 2013

2. Which school configuration would you prefer? • Pick one • Go to that side of the room • Discuss for 5 minutes to brainstorm pro’s and con’s • Be ready to share with the class K – 5; 6 – 8 K - 8 OR

3. Objectives • Soup to Nuts (but not much meat…) • Examine the factors affecting elementary school configurations • Historical • Social and cultural • Economic • Political • Compare/contrast the varying levels of attention & resources in developing content in different disciplines • Understand the considerations and accommodations needed to ensure equitable access for populations with diverse needs

4. Tic-Tac-Toe ~ Five in a Row • Everyone receives a game board and tokens • Throughout the presentation, keep an eye out for KEY POINTS (WORDS, PHRASES, IDEAS, ETC.) • Cover each key point with a token • When you have five in a row (column or diagonal) • Raise your hand • When called on, announce “Tic-Tac-Toe – Five in a Row” • BUT, then be prepared to synthesize those five points into a statement about the related topic. • Pick your prize!

5. Game Board Sample

6. Configurations • The 19th Century had a two-tier model: Gr. 1-8 and 9-12 • The 20th Century went to three tiers: K-5, 6-8, and 9-12 • The 21st Century’s emerging model is a return to K-8 and 9-12 with 21 large US districts already adopting it.

7. Pro’s for K-8 • Greater parental choice • Better testing achievement • Perceived cost effectiveness • Smaller, more personal learning environments • Lowered secondary school dropout rates • Ability to retain community support • Seamless grade transitions • K-8 alignment of standards • Research showing that pre-and early adolescents do better academically and socially in K-8

8. PreK- 5: Issues • NCLBemphasis on literacy and testing • Standards-based curriculum • Impact of immigration • Redefined basics of higher standards, benchmarks, and more rigorous curriculum

9. PreK-5: Includes • Content • National reading, writing, and math standards • State standards and frameworks with assessment items and benchmark tests • Alignment of curriculum for systematic and sequential instruction of essential learning skills • Assessment • Academic skills placement tests • Performance-based assessments with rubrics • Competency-based instruction • Portfolio assessment systems

10. PreK – 5: Program Elements • Inclusion • Cultural diversity • Mobility of parents • Socio-economic needs • Being all things to all children

11. PreK – 5: Considerations • Struggle between narrow curriculum to testable areas and broader school programming • Now with daycare prevalence, earlier socialization function of early grades needs updating • Immigration increasing our non-English –speaking populations • Cultural and socio-economic diversity • School choice pro’s and con’s • Balancing increasing academic expectations against developmental exploration needs

12. Elementary School Curriculum • Overview • Evolved over past 200 years from narrow (reading, writing, and arithmetic) to broad (variety of learning experiences) • Schools are mechanisms for social change; schools become battlegrounds for diverse groups with conflicting interests • Elementary schools responding to needs of expanding and increasingly diverse society

13. American Beginnings • Rights; Highest ideals for our citizens • No national system; states rights • 1647 – Old Deluder Satan Act by Massachusetts Bay Colony to establish schools so men could read scriptures and escape the clutches of Satan • 1693 – Legislation for selectmen to levy school taxes with consent of majority of townspeople • Discipline along religious lines (ex. Flogging to drive out the devil) • Also political purposes; rallying support for new American political system New England Primer The primary text – bible verses and other resources to teach reading and number skills

14. Westward Expansion and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi- 1801 • Child growth & development are organic, not mechanistic • Narrow curriculum was inadequate to prepare intelligent citizens • Teacher training programs • How Gertrude Teaches Her Children

15. Horace Mann and Public School Revival 1826-1876 • Prussian influence • Grading students on ability • Improving methods of instruction and discipline • State agency for education • Teacher-training institutions • Increased funding • Enriched curriculum

16. Expansion & Reform • Industrialization of 1876-1930’s • Schools became instruments of social change • Enrollments doubled • New subjects taught • School day lengthened • World War I resulted in demands for new skills

17. 1918 Curriculum Change • Greater literacy training • Addition of vocational programs • Psychology introduced in teacher training Woodrow Wilson

18. 1930’s • Standardized tests to determine achievement in school subjects • Individual and group intelligence tests • Differentiation emerged for “slow, average, and above-average” elementary children

19. 1920’s – 1950’s Progressive Movement • John Dewey and educational philosophers • Schools as agencies of society designed improve democratic way of life • Studying home, neighborhood, and community • Study familiar to build curiosity about science, geography, and math • Learning by doing; Beyond rote to creative activities • Build on interests of students • Represent real life

20. 1956 Sputnik • Reexamine purpose of elementary school • Censured progressive education as failing to provide necessary skills and knowledge for scientific world • Congressional acts gave millions to fund science and math programs, materials, and training

21. 1960’s Innovation • organizational changes • absence of grades • open classrooms • team teaching • however, lack of preparation and confusion of organization means with ends did not produce true change Pine Run School, PA

22. 1970’s & 1980’s • first enrollment declines • retrenchment, funding problems, and dissatisfaction with 60’s experimentation • new legislated accountability and increased testing • by late 1980’s, • enrollment became to grow again, • curriculum had expanded in variety of learning experiences • but narrowed focus to basic skills of written and oral communication and math; • unbalanced curriculum

23. Organizing Curriculum • Elementary curriculum is organized around • Bases of knowledge • Needs of society • Human learning and development

24. 1960’s – 1990’s • new programs to accommodate • young learners • special needs • free public kindergarten • special education programs for physical and mental disabilities • gifted learners • nursery programs • extended-day centers • parent centers

25. Individualizing Instruction Not simply by rate of progress Study • materials for study • method of study • pace of study • sequence of study Learning • learning focus • place of learning • evaluation of learning • purpose of learning

26. Accommodating Differences • grouping • materials of varying difficulty • special programs for students at the greatest points away from group norms

27. Grouping • Flexibility is key • Common groupings • Whole class • Reading level groups (by achievement) • Reading need group (by skill need) • Interest groups • Practice or tutorial groups • Research groups • Individualization by project or series of lessons • Mobility; based on need; a variety of groupings throughout the day

28. Selection of Content • Language arts, math, social studies, science, the arts, and health • National, state, and local levels help select content • Because we do not have a national system, curriculum developers and researchers must fit a variety for the 14,000 school districts in the country

29. Reading • Controversial, emotional, and sometimes political • Concern of parents before entering school • Focus of national rage, research studies, and federal crusade in past 25 years • Millions of dollars into development of reading programs • Scores available that all work, but still many nonreaders

30. Reading: A vast array… APPROACHES • Basals • Language Experience • Individualized Approach • Linguistic Approach • Phonics • Alphabetic Approach • Programmed Instruction • READABILITY FORMULAS • Flesch Reading Ease Score • Wheeler and Smith Index Number • Cloze Technique • Lorge Grade Placement Score • Fry Graph • SMOG Grading Plan • Space Grade level Score

31. Grouping concerns – usually…. • High Ability Groups • First when alert, eager • Longer time frame • Warmer, receptive teacher • Criticized respectfully • Disciplined with warnings • Read 3x as much as other groups and make more progress • Read silently 70% time • Expected to self-correct, with help at end • Asked comprehension and higher level thinking questions • Low Ability Groups • Less time, later in day when tired • Negative teacher body language • Read more orally, slow halting and labored, so less time and get further behind • Read silently 30% time • Each error pointed out; less time for self-correction • Asked more literal questions

32. Spelling Two Methods • Invented spelling • write how they think it is spelled and check later • allows concentration and flow • Traditional spelling • memorize 10-20 words a week • tested on spelling rather than ability to apply rules to new words • focus on dictionary use, handwriting, and rewriting words several times However, new models suggest spelling be seen as part of a total language system of writing and reading

33. Writing • Focus of elementary schools; respond to demands of colleges, increasing instructional time • Focus on skill instruction in grammar and spelling comes at the expense of composition • Daily writing, conferences, and focus of skills in context of writing appear more effective • Increased emphasis on integrating composition and literature into language arts • At center of language arts curriculum • Place skills instruction within rather than before genuine reading and writing • Integrate various components of language arts through content rather than skills • Insist all readers and writers (not just most able) gain equal access to genuine reading and writing

34. Mathematics • Early objectives centered on computational skills; 1920’s and 30’s shifted to more practical application of math; todaybalanced with understanding math concepts and reasoning • 1990’s professional standardsby NCTM redefined elementary math • Dictated by standards and benchmarks; Effective if adapted to developmental characteristics • Delivery of content and skills: Computers, whole curricular approaches, and interdisciplinary units • Approaches • Cooperative learning • Use of themes and real-life programs • Use of group grading on cooperative assignments

35. Science • 1960’s reform towards understanding processes; Recently, shifted toward technologicalapplications • Inquiry based programs foster seeing orderly arrangement in natural world and explain continual change • Develop functional competency with the tools of science • “Whole approach” has interdisciplinary scope in a thematic approach • Incorporate reading, writing, and math • Cooperative learning and a team approach

36. Social Studies • Focuses on interaction of people with one another, and natural and human environments • Less reform in this than other areas • Children are more open to diversity in early elementary years; citizenship education helps foster positive self-concepts • Prime importance in • teaching critical thinking • developing civic responsibility • building self-concept • and improving human relationships

37. Health and Physical Education • Core components of a complete education • Health ed includes all aspects of healthful and safe living • Physical ed includes adaptive and developmental activities that lead to better coordination and psychomotor skills • Should interrelate the physical, mental and social aspects of students • Aids Education…

38. The Arts • Aesthetic education brings cognitive, affective,, and psychomotor areas of learning • A shift from math and reading being cognitive, with arts being affective to an understanding through research that all involve • Both intellect and feelings, • Include communication through various modes of symbolization • Arts contribute a ‘language’ and experience adds cognitive data to the functioning brain • Should be considered a basic part of curriculum

39. Diverse Needs of Children

40. Diverse Needs: ADD/ADHD • Symptoms • Difficulty remaining seated; Calling out without request; Interrupting others; Talking excessively • Challenges • Easily distracted; Disorganized; Lacking motor skills; Limited attention span • Most in regular classrooms • 3-5% of school age children; 6-9% more in boys • Teachers can support through • organization skills • effective instructions • consistent discipline • nonverbal cues • developing child’s self-esteem • communicating with parents • Self control strategies are important, but must determine any other behavioral or cognitive deficits to be remediated before self-control strategies are implemented

41. Diverse Needs: Impoverished Families • President Johnson “War on Poverty” in mid-1960’s. • The younger the family; the poorer the children • 50% of all US children have head-of-household under 25 • Headed by a woman, chances are better than 50% for poverty • 50% children born in 2000 lived with a single parent • Majority of poor people life in semi-isolation in towns rather than cities • 2/3 of Americans who are poor are white • 2006 – 200,000 children were homeless each night • Foster children and displaced children often come from poor families • Drug and alcohol abuse by parents contribute to children in juvenile detention center. • ¼ Mothers no prenatal care • Teachers seeing more learning disabilities from poor healthcare and drug use by mothers

42. Diverse Needs: Different Cultures • Many languages, religions • Large increases in Spanish as first language • Asian population continues to grow • ESL programs allow students to learn English while retaining cultures • Encouraged to express themselves and relate their experiences • Working with parents with take-home materials and techniques • Teachers and aides who speak languages is a challenge, especially beyond majority-minority languages

43. Diverse Needs:Disabilities – Rights & ID • 1975-2010 significant progress • laws guaranteeing access to curriculum and public dollars • Education of Al Handicapped Children Act of 1975 is a “bill of rights” for those with disabilities • Procedures • Due process • Ages 3-21 • Emphasis on regular classroom settings • Eligible for all programs and activities • Non-discriminatory testing and evaluation • No single test or procedure as sole criterion • Requires substantial diagnostic information about present and past academic and social performance • Project the specific needs of each child and prescribe special programs

44. Diverse Needs: Disabilities – Services • Individualized Education Program (IEP) • Collecting diagnostic data • Setting goals and objectives • Selecting instructional materials • Evaluating student performance • Mainstreaming – moving children with disabilities from segregated special education classes into normal classrooms • Mandates most appropriate education must be the least restrictive environment; but with cautions as to needs • Coordination of classroom teachers with special educators

45. Diverse Needs:Disabilities – 2 New Areas • Early identification in preschool, with services • Federal and state mandates • Currently age 3; predicted to start at birth • Transition from school the world of work • Vocational schools • Help seeking employment • Job coaches for successfully employment • Employers encouraged to hire them while in school and then keep them after graduation

46. Defining Inclusion • Mainstreaming? • All special needs children in the regular classroom while retraining the special staff? • ‘Inclusion’ means some children; ‘full inclusion’ means all children? • Teachers of students with disabilities who accompany their students to regular classrooms? • COMMON AGREEMENT: keeping special education students in regular education classrooms and taking support services to the child rather than the child going out • Question of risk for other students in placing severely dysfunctional children in a regular classroom without adequate training or support for the teachers • Without training and support, it could take up instructional time for distractions, disruptions, and possibly violence • Clear philosophy needed for success • Include goals for all students • Curriculum balances needs of general and special education students

47. Diverse Needs: Gifted Students • 2.5 million or 6% - academic, artistic, or social talents far beyond peers • All levels of society, races, and genders • All states have programs for gifted children* • Problems with identifying and providing services • Multi criteria, not multi-hurdle; not IQ tests alone • Measure creativity, advanced social skills, or other aptitudes • Tend to learn faster and retain more than peers • Divergent thinkers • Not always a good fit in class – can lead to trouble, boredom, or alienation

48. US DoE has definition with six specific ability areas • General intellectual ability;Specific academic aptitude;Creative or productive thinking;Leadership ability;Ability in the visual or performing arts;Psychomotor ability • A debate over equity versus excellence; ‘fairness’ • Cooperative learning controversy – holding students back or bringing out the potential of each child? • Tracking is under fire (and NOT recommended), whereas identification, providing for demonstrated needs, and flexible grouping are recommended • Need special attention whether separate programs, differentiated instruction • Organizational procedures include magnet schools, cluster grouping, mainstreaming, and part-day groupings

49. Diverse Needs: Early Intervention • Transition from home to school and K to upper grades • Stress shared learning experience • Developmentally appropriate physical, cognitive, social, emotional and creative development • Student role models • National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) founded in 1977 promotes developmentally appropriate curriculum and instructional methods • Constructivist view of learning from Dewey, Piaget, etc. has been affirmed by cognitive psychology; students are more active agents in their own education • KINDERGARTEN CONCERNS: • K as ‘real’ school; whole day; academic - - - with many children failing kindergarten • Academics are inappropriate for those children, but there is increasing pressure to step up formal instruction

50. Styles and Approaches