Nicole Rigby September 5, 2012 Period: 2

1. Nicole RigbySeptember 5, 2012Period: 2

2. 1. Define anatomy and physiology and describe their subdivisions. • Anatomy- study of the structure of living organisms by looking at an organisms biological system and their biological system’s organs and tissues. Subdivisions: • Gross anatomy- examination without microscope • Microscopic Anatomy- examination with microscope • Histology- examination of tissues • Cytology- examination of cells • Developmental anatomy- changes from fertilized egg to adult • Embryology- changes from egg to 8th week in uterus • Pathology – changes associated with disease

3. 1. (cont.) Define anatomy and physiology and describe their subdivisions. • Physiology- the study of the individual function of cells, organs and tissues, and how they all cooperate together in an organism. Subdivisions: • Cell physiology- examination of function and interaction of cells • Systemic physiology- examination of functional interaction of organs which make up a system • Pathological physiology- examination of effects caused by a disease on an organ or entire system

4. 2. Name different levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain their relationships. • Chemical- reactions take place to make changes on a cellular level • Cellular- cells are formed together to make different types of tissues • Tissue- are combined to form organs such as a heart, or lungs • Organ- organs work together to function in an organ system • Organ System- cooperate with each other to keep an organism alive • Organism- is made up of all of levels of structural organization

5. 3. List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their components, and briefly explain the major functions of the system. • Circulatory System: heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, lymph structures. -Function: transport materials, defends against disease. • Digestive System: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas. -Function: ingest and digest food for energy, absorbs into blood • Endocrine System: pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, hypothalamus gland, pineal gland, kidney, pancreas, ovaries, testes. -Function: regulates body chemistry and many body functions. • Integument System: skin, nails, hair, sweat glands. -Function: covers and protects body. • Lymphatic System: subdivision of circulatory, contains lymph. -Function: movement of fluid and is a defense mechanism of the body against disease.

6. 3. (cont.) List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their components, and briefly explain the major functions of the system. • Muscular System: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle. -Function: locomotion, pumps blood. • Nervous System: nerves, brain, spiral cord. -Function: Receives stimuli externally and internally, conducts impulses for other systems. • Reproductive System: testes, ovaries. -Function: reproduction • Respiratory System: lungs, air passageways. -Function: exchange gas between blood and outside environment. • Skeletal System: bones, ligaments, cartilage. -Function: supports and protects body, calcium storage and cell formation. • Urinary System: kidney, bladder. -Function: gets rid of waste, removes excess substances from blood.

7. 4. List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain life in humans. • Adaptation • Digestion • Excretion • Growth • Metabolism • Movement • Responsiveness • Reproduction

8. 5. Define homeostasis and explain its significance. • Homeostasis: a systems ability to maintain internal stability • Homeostasis allows the body to keep stability to things we cannot change such as our internal temperature, our body allows us to sweat to cool off the heat build up within our body without our control.

9. 6. Describe how negative and positive feedback maintain body homeostasis. • Negative and Positive feedback affect body homeostasis by making a change in an organisms system to keep constant homeostasis. • Example: The human body sweats. Humans sweat when the body begins to overheat so, the body applies negative feedback to counteract the heating by cooling down the body with sweat.

10. 7. Describe anatomical position. • Anatomical position is when the body is standing with feet together, arms to the side, with the head, eyes and palms facing forward.

11. 8. Use correct anatomical terms to describe body directions, regions, and body planes or sections. • Anterior: toward front of body • Posterior: toward back of the body • Medial: Toward middle line of the body • Lateral: toward side of the body • Proximal: nearest to a point given • Distal: Farther from point of reference • Superior: above • Inferior: below • Cranial (Cephalic): toward the head • Caudal: toward the lower end of spine • Superficial (External): close to surface of body • Deep (internal): close to center of body • Frontal Plane (Coronal Plane): made at right angles to the midline and divides body into anterior parts • Sagittal plane: passes from front to back divides left and right portions • Transverse: passes horizontally dividing the body into bottom and top

12. 9. Locate and name the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and list major organs contained within them. http://www.google.com/imgres?q=body+cavities&hl=en&sa=X&biw=782&bih=938&tbm=isch&prmd=ivns&tbnid=IgxrAexiZ2nDBM:&imgrefurl=http://legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/anat/Notes/API%2520Notes%2520A%2520%2520Language%2520of%2520Anatomy.htm&docid=3U6EBLFWDPbl6M&w=640&h=480&ei=aEllTs-YPIuugQettLyKCg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=108&page=1&tbnh=130&tbnw=173&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0&tx=106&ty=40

13. 9. (continued) Locate and name the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and list major organs contained within them. • Dorsal Cavity (subdivisions) • Cranial cavity- Brain • Vertebral canal- Spinal cord • Ventral Cavity (subdivisions) • Thoracic cavity- Lungs and Heart • Diaphragm- diaphragm • Abdominopelvic cavity A) Abdominal cavity- Digestive organs, spleen, and kidneys B) Pelvic cavity- bladder and reproductive organs, testes and ovaries

14. 10. Name the serous membranes and indicate their common functions. • Pericardium: protects heart from chest wall and other structures in heart • Peritoneum: covers and protects abdominal organs • Pleura: to protect lungs from chest and keeps lungs air tight

15. 11. Name the nine regions or four quadrants of the abdominopelivc cavity and list major organs contained within them. • Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ): stomach, spleen, left kidney, pancreas, left ureter, small intestine, parts of duedenum, and the transverse and descending colon. • Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ): small intestine, descending and sigmoid colon, rectum, left ureter, and urinary bladder. • Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ): appendix, cecum, ascending colon, small intestine, right ureter, urinary ladder, and rectum. • Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ): gallbladder, liver, pancreas, small intestine, and ascending and transverse colon.

16. 12. Describe major energy forms. (Kinetic, Potential, etc…) • Electrical Energy: is the presence of a flow of an electrical charge. • Heat Energy: is the transfer of kinetic energy by collision. • Kinetic Energy: is the energy of motion. • Light Energy: light is energy being transferred from space. • Potential Energy: when an object stores energy because of its position. • Sound Energy: is energy produced by vibrations. http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&biw=1280&bih=600&tbm=isch&tbnid=dzHwBPxjokvYHM:&imgrefurl=http://resources.yesican-science.ca/energy_flow/energy_forms_activity1_key.html&imgurl=http://resources.yesican-science.ca/energy_flow/images/kinetic_energy1.png&w=300&h=184&ei=1GBGUNKZNYiG6QGM8IHgAg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=265&vpy=2&dur=702&hovh=147&hovw=240&tx=112&ty=23&sig=114195856229322171724&page=1&tbnh=88&tbnw=143&start=0&ndsp=21&ved=1t:429,r:8,s:0,i:163

17. 13. Define chemical element and list the four elements that form the bulk of body matter. • Chemical Element: is an element that cannot be broken down into another substance. • The four elements that make up the bulk of body matter are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, & oxygen.

18. 14. Compare solutions, colloids, and suspensions. • Solutions & Colloids: homogeneous mixtures • Suspension: heterogeneous. • Particles of a Solutions and particles of a Colloid will never settle • Particles in a Suspension would eventually settle http://www.google.com/imgres?q=solutions+suspensions+and+colloids&um=1&hl=en&qscrl=1&nord=1&rlz=1T4GGLL_enUS359US360&biw=1280&bih=600&tbm=isch&tbnid=Jsa_yiLtweB7AM:&imgrefurl=http://kohyizhescienceeportfolio.wordpress.com/2011/08/28/term-2-sixth-entry-solutions-and-suspensions/&imgurl=http://kohyizhescienceeportfolio.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/solutions-suspensions.jpg&w=960&h=720&ei=8mFGUKPoA-if6wHZ8IGYCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=654&vpy=288&dur=1919&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=119&ty=150&sig=114195856229322171724&page=1&tbnh=126&tbnw=168&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:15,s:0,i:119

19. 15. Compare and contrast polar and non-polar compounds. • Polar and non-polar compounds are both poor conductors. • Polar compounds • soluble • have a electronegetivity difference less than 1.7 • has a polar covalent bond • have partially negative and partially positive dipole bonds • Non-polar compounds • have electronegetivity difference of 0 • Insoluble • the same equal amounts of negative and positive charges of electrons

20. 16. Define three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and exchange. Comment on the nature of oxidation reduction reactions and their importance. • Synthesis: two or more chemicals combine to form a more complex product • Decomposition: is the separation of molecules to a more simplified compound. • Exchange: the exchange of one or more elements in two different compounds.

21. 17. Explain why chemical reactions in the body are often irreversible. • Chemical reactions within the body are often irreversible because the human body does not contain the extra energy to take part in various chemical reactions. The body constantly trying to maintain homeostasis and the human body always tries to keep a stabilized condition.

22. 18. Explain the importance of water and the salts to body homeostasis. • Cells transport materials around the body and in order to do so they go through processes such as osmosis and diffusion which depend on the body’s salt and water balance in order for these reactions to take place.

23. 19. Define acid and base, and explain the concept of pH. • Acid: Proton donator it gives a H+ ion in a reaction. • Base: Proton acceptor it receives the H+ ion in a reaction. • pH: measurement of acidity in a solution. If a solution has a pH of less than 7-0 them it is an acid and if a solution has a pH of more then 7-14 it is a base if the solution has a pH of 7 then it is neutral. The higher the pH, the more basic the solution is and the lower the pH, the more acidic solution.

24. 20. Describe the general mechanism of enzyme activity. • An enzyme combines with a substrate on the active site the combination of the substrate changes the distribution of electrons and speeds up the reaction process then the products are released from the enzymes surface.

25. 21. List the three major regions of a generalized cell and indicate the function of each. • Cell Membrane: Protects cell from outdoor environments and diffuses materials in and out of cell. • Cytoplasm: Jelly like substance that fills the cell and serves as locomotion of organelles and substances inside the cell. • Nucleus: Core of the cell that contains genetic material to store DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes.

26. 22. Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions. • The plasma membrane has two phospholipid layers. Proteins are found in the bi-lipid membrane and channel proteins are used as channels to transport specific molecules across the plasma membrane.

27. 23. Compare the structures and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. • Tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions all: -create waterproof attachments -prevent movement of select fluids and molecules between cells -connect to cytoplasm of other cells -are made out of protein -can exchange substances between cells

28. 24. Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport mechanisms. Differentiate between these transport processes relative to source, substances, transported, direction, and mechanism. • Plasma membrane structures are able to choose which cells they want to exchange materials with using the different types of gap junctions. They can anchor other cells cytoskeleton and transport foreign materials with each other by allowing or blocking off the pathway with other proteins from the gap junction. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.occc.edu/biologylabs/Images/Cells_Membranes/plasmamembrane2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.occc.edu/biologylabs/Documents/Cells%2520Membranes/Plasma_Membrane.htm&h=234&w=288&sz=27&tbnid=1X3qHV8wW3k6KM:&tbnh=90&tbnw=111&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dplasma%2Bmembrane%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=plasma+membrane&usg=__PC6X33LT12ba2NvrrzWxUlAM0S4=&hl=en&sa=X&ei=X2JGUJTaNOHr6gHY2IHIAQ&sqi=2&ved=0CC4Q9QEwAg&dur=234

29. 25. Describe the role of the glycocalyx when cells interact with their environment. • Glycocalyx is the outer layer of a bacteria cell. It helps bacteria cells hold in water and allows cells to stick onto other substances or even other cells.

30. 26. Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria. • Mitochondria are the power house of a cell. The mitochondria has a double-membrane structure. They produce ATP by aerobic respiration like glycolysis. ATP is short for Adenosine triphosphate.

31. 27. Discuss the structure and function of ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus including functional interrelationships among these organelles. • Ribosomes: Cells contain thousands, they are small protein factories, some are formed on the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and others float in cytoplasm. • Endoplasmic Reticulum: Network of tubes that is fused to the nuclear membrane. Stores separate, and is a transport system. Rough endoplasmic Reticulum has embedded ribosomes and the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum does not. • Golgi Apparatus: Called the packaging plant, composed of layers of proteins, and is usually found near nucleus. Ships materials around cells.

32. 28. Compare the functions of lysosomes and peroxisomes. • Lysosomes: Transport undigested material to the cell membrane so they can be removed from the cell; vary in shapes and sizes • Peroxisomes: Membrane enclosed organelles; like mitochondria because they are assembled from protein

33. 29. Describe the process of DNA replication. • There are 46 strands of DNA called chromosomes in each cell. In every cell, there are genes in chromosomes and before the cell divides the DNA must be copied so when the cell divides there is a duplicate of the DNA. The DNA is copied by a replication fork forms when the DNA strand is split in two then Nucleotides are added to mach the strand’s code (G-C) (A-T).

34. 30. Name two phases of protein synthesis and describe the roles of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in each phase. Compare triplets, codons, and anticodons. • Translation: First ribosomes attach to mRNA at the start codon then its goes through the elongation phase, this phase is when structures of amino acid linked to tRNA bind to the appropriate codon in mRNA and making the same pairs with the tRNAanticodon. Amino acids are then added individually then a release factor binds to the stop codon stopping the translation. • Transcription: Before synthesis of the protein begins a corresponding RNA molecule is produced by transcription then one strand of DNA double helix is used to copy using a messenger RNA then the mRNA goes to the cells cytoplasm and goes through different mutations this can be described as a unit of three nucleotide which is called a codon.

35. 31. List several structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue. • Epithelial Tissue: • Covers most of external and internal body tissues, • Cells are attached to one another • Intercellular spaces in epithelium tissue are small • It is polarized • Epithelial cells are separated from other tissue by a basement membrane • Allows very little if any substances to pass through this tissue

36. 32. Name, Classify, and describe the various types of epithelia: also indicate their chief functions and locations. • Simple: Cells that are arranged in a single layer. Located in the inner surface of cheeks. Function diffusion and filtration. • Stratified: If the cell is arranged in two or more layers. Locations mouth, esophagus, and canal. Function protection. • Squamous: When the cell has a flattened shape. Location blood vessels. • Cuboidal: If the cells have the same height. Location rings of cells. Function secretion, excretion, and absorption. • Columnar: If the height exceeds the width. Location lining of most of the digestive track. Function protection, secretion, absorption. • Pseudostratifed Ciliated Column: The Pseudostratifed Ciliated Column is a respiratory epithelium found in the nasal septum, trachea, and bronchi. Function is to trap and move pollutants. • Transitional: Used to easily push down waste found in the ureter, and urinary bladder. Function is for distention.

37. 33. Define gland. Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands and multicellular and unicellular glands. • Gland: Specialized cell, group of cells, or an organ of endothelial origin that removes materials from blood, concentrates or changes them, or secretes them for further use in the body or for elimination. • Endocrine Glands: secrete hormones into bloodstream • Exocrine Glands: secrete non-hormonal chemicals into ducts that transports chemicals in body to specific locations • Unicellular Glands: Specialize in secretion in small amounts • Multicellular Glands: Chained together and use a mode of secretion called merocrine, apocrine, or holocrine which are more efficient ways for secreting materials

38. 34. Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body, and indicate their characteristic functions. • Adipose tissue: Loose tissue with fat cells or adipocytes • Dense: High density or extracellular fibers which makes it strong and sturdy • Elastic Tissue: Dense tissue it is more elastic then the dense collagenous tissue located in the wall of the aorta and the elastic ligament of the spine • Fibrocollagenous: Flexible and has great strength, located in the sclera in eyes and in the dermis of skin • Irregular: Fibers are arranged in random directions • Loose: Lacks fibrous reinforcement which makes it more delicate • Lymphoid Tissue: Loose tissue has a continuous but easily broken wall located in the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils • Ordinary (Proper): General form or regular proportions of extracellular fibers, and extracellular ground substances • Regular: Aligned in a single direction • Special: Connects bone, cartilage, and lymphoid tissue

39. 35. Describe the structure and function of cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes. • Cutaneous: Covers the surface of body consist of stratified squamous epithelium and connective tissues. They are thick, waterproof, and dry. • Mucous: Lines cavities that connect with the exterior including, digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts. They keep moist at all times. Usually lined with simple epithelia that have absorptive or secretory functions. • Serous: Line sealed internal cavities in body lines the heart, liver, stomach, and the lungs. Has pariental and visceral properties that decreases friction between opposing surfaces.

40. 36. Outline the process of tissue repair involved in normal healing of a superficial wound. • First, a temporary clot is formed. Then, steps for repair begin. Inflammatory cells, fibroblasts and capillaries invade the clot to form ganulation tissue. This tissue makes the wound come together and epidermal edges cover the wounds surface.

41. 37. Indicate the embryonic origin of each tissue class. • Connective Tissue: Origin in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle. • Epithelial Tissue: Origin in surface of skin, airways, reproduction track, and digestive tract. • Muscle Tissue: Origin in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle. • Nervous Tissue: Origin in cranial nerves, spinal nerves, motor neurons.

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