Lecture 3: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis “ The First Three Minutes ”

Lecture 3: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis“The First Three Minutes” Last time: particle anti-particle soup --> quark soup --> neutron-proton soup p / n ratio at onset of 2D formation Today: • Form 2D and 4He • Form heavier nuclei? • Discuss primordial abundances Xp, Yp, Zp . • Constraint on cosmic baryon density Wb .

Onset of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Deuterium ( D ) production Delayed until the high energy tail of blackbody photons can no longer break up D. Binding energy: E = 2.2 MeV. k T ~ 0.1 MeV ( T ~ 109 K t ~ 400 s ) Thermal equilibrium + neutron decay: Np / Nn ~ 7 Thus, at most, ND / Np = 1/6 But: Deuterium readily assembles into heavier nuclei.

Key Fusion Reactions binding energy: product:

Note: 1) D has the lowest binding energy (2.2 MeV) ( D easy to break up ) 2) Nuclei with A > 2 cannot form until D is produced. ( would require 3-body collisions ) Deuterium bottleneck - Nucleosynthesis is delayed until D forms. - Then nuclei immediately form up to 4He. Deuterium Bottleneck

What about Heavier Nuclei? Z = number of protons A = atomic weight = protons + neutrons As protons increase, neutrons must increase faster for stable nuclei. Nuclei with Z > 83 or >126 neutrons UNSTABLE. e.g. a-decay (emit 4He) b-decay (emit e- )

Lose 2 neutrons and 2 protons a decay Photon emission

b decay n => p + e- Positron emission Electron capture p => n + e+ p + e- => n

BBN stalls The main problem: 4He is very stable, (28 MeV binding energy). No stable nuclei with A = 5. So can’t use 4He + p or 4He + n, only much rarer 4He + 4He collisions make progress. Thus further fusion is slow (low binding energies), leading to only traces of heavier nuclei, up to 7Li. ( In stars, fusion proceeds because high density and temperature overcome the 4He binding energy.)

Because 4He is so stable, all fusion pathways lead to 4He, and further fusion is rare. Thus almost all neutrons end up in 4He, and residual protons remain free. [ p+p -> 2He does not occur] To first order, with Np / N n ~ 7, Primordial abundances of H & He (by mass, not by number). Primordial Abundances

In astronomy, all nuclei with A > 4 (or with Z > 2) are called metals ( Li, Be, … ) BBN yields H, He, and traces of D, T, 6Li, 7Li, 7Be. Since the 1960’s, computers simulating Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, using known reaction rates, give detailed abundance predictions: Xp = 0.75 Yp = 0.25 Zp~ 10-9 Primordial Metals

BBN Predictions Expansion, cooling Reactions “freeze out” due to expansion Thermal equilibrium neutrons decay into protons

Sensitivity to Parameters Abundances depend on two parameters: • photon/baryon ratio (sets Tat which D forms) • cooling time / neutron decay time (determines the proton / neutron ratio) If cooling much faster, no neutrons decay and Np / Nn ~ 5  Xp = 4/6 = 0.67 Yp = 2/6 = 0.33 If cooling much slower, all neutrons decay  Xp = 1 Yp = 0

Abundances (especially D) are sensitive to these 2 parameters. Why? Fewer baryons/photon, D forms at lower T, longer cooling time, more neutrons decay ==> less He. At lower density, lower collision rates, D burning incomplete ==> more D. Conversely, higher baryon/photon ratio ==> more He and less D. Photon density is well known, but baryon density is not. The measured D abundance constrains the baryon density!! A very important constraint. Baryon Density Constraint

Baryon Density Constraint Observed He/H matches ! Observed D/H requires: ~4% baryons Confirmed by an independent result from the CMB ripples. Less Deuterium at higher densities

Observations can check the BBN predictions. But we must find primordial gas, not yet polluted by stars. 1 ) D/H ratio from “Lyman-alpha clouds”: Quasar spectra show a “forest” of La absorption lines, formed in gas clouds at various redshifts along the line of sight. Line strengths give D/H abundance in primordial gas clouds (where few or no stars have yet formed). 2 ) He/H ratio from nearby low-metalicity dwarf galaxies: High gas/star ratio and low metal/H from emission lines in HII regions suggest that interstellar medium still close to primordial Can we find primordial gas ?

Primordial D/H from La clouds La (+Deuterium La) line in quasar spectrum: D/H ~ 3x10-4

Yp = primordial He/H from dwarf galaxies Emission lines from H II regions in low-metalicity galaxies. Measure abundance ratios: He/H, O/H, N/H, … Stellar nucleosynthesis increases He along with metal abundances. Find Yp = 0.245 by extrapolating to zero metal abundance.

Summary of BBN Mostly H (75%) and 4He (25%) emerge from the Big Bang, plus traces of metals (~0%) up to 7Li. The strong binding energy of 4He largely prevents formation of heavy metals. Observed primordial abundances confirm predictions, and measure the baryon density Next time: Matter-radiation decoupling Formation of the CMB

Lecture 3: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis “ The First Three Minutes ”