Chinese Psychology

1. Chinese Psychology

2. Outline I. Chinese Childhood Socialization II. Emotion Among the Chinese III. The Role of Belief in Chinese Culture IV. Modern Personality theory

3. I. Chinese Childhood Socialization Psychologists: focus on individuals, examine individual capacities and variation in child development . Anthropologies: pay more attention to cultural environmental influences, e.g. socio-economic condition of a population

4. I. Chinese Childhood Socialization Childhood Socialization: 1.how parents rear their children 2.how children learn to become acceptable members of a society. i.e. what is an acceptable Chinese way of socializing children and what kind of adults Chinese socialization aims to produce.

5. I.1 The Confucian Tradition of Parental Education?????? Traitionally, Chinese scholars and political authorities have a clear idea about the concept of the child. Ideas were first stated in essays (in 1st century B.C) by Confucian scholars, who proposed the important role adult family members should assume in early childhood education. By the time of the Ming? (1368-1644) and Qing? (1644-1911) dynasties, neo-Confucian???scholars wrote essays in plain language to guide parents in providing their children with proper discipline (e.g.the Sanzijing??? i.e. �???, ???,???,???��).

6. I.1 The Confucian Tradition of Parental Education In this view, a person by nature does not become an acceptable human being unless educated through deliberate efforts to attain ren. The emphasis is placed both on paternal responsibility for instruction and the child�s responsibility for learning about the way of becoming human (zuo ren??).

7. I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development The basic assumption of the Confucian scholars is that a child�s disposition derives from environmental influences, even before birth and during gestation. e.g. the need for �womb education�?? �When a woman becomes pregnant she is put into a school of �gestatony education,� in order that she may be able to impart to the child a proper disposition before it is born.� �If she is affected by good things the child will be good, if by bad things the child will be bad.�

8. I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development A pregnant woman seeks to shape the character of the coming child by restricting her activities After the child is born, parents must provide the correct environment for raising it. A good mother seeks the best neighborhood for raising her child. E.g. Mencius� mother who moved house three times to avoid bad environmental influences to Mencius (mentioned in Lei Nu Zhuan???, 77-6 B.C.)

9. I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development The process of learning to become human, according to Confucian theorists, must begin early enough in the family. The ancient Chinese theories of child development emphasize the formation of habits of correct behavior without a trace of deliberate teaching or coercion.

10. I.1.2 Models and Strategies of Traditional Child Rearing Thus, teaching by example ??was and still is an important principle. E.g. a father, a school-teacher Parents, considered a child�s first teachers, must model exemplary behavior to set a life-long foundation for the child. (yi shen zuo ze????).

11. I.1.3 Training of Affective Control Early training in the control of affective display is part of the education in good manners. Yanshi Jiaxun ,Yan�s Family Teaching ????(531-91 AD): train a child from infant: to interpret adult�s facial expressions and to act according to parental wishes. �Our family has always emphasized strictness in teaching children. When I was a young child at home, we walked properly and took every step delicately, spoke gently and calmly, showed great reverence and fear in front of parents and elders.� Yan�s 20 essays on family education set a model for later Confucian scholars.

12. I.1.3 Training of Affective Control Emphasis: composed, reverential behavior and on the restriction of physical activities among children. Text on family education: Parents should teach their children �no leaping, arguing, joking, or using vulgar language.� �How children should be taught to sit, stand, walk, speak, bow, recite, and write.� �The little ones are exhorted always to walk slowly with the arms held under the sleeves, with no waving of the arms or jumping.�

13. I.1.3 Training of Affective Control Important aspect of socialization in traditional Chinese culture: to train a person to be bugou yanxiao????, to never to reveal one�s thoughts and feelings. To sum up: Chinese parents were pressured to instill solemnity and self-control early on in their children.

14. I.1.4 On Dongshi ??(understanding things) The age at which a child is old enough to be punished is based on the assumed developmental stages of a person�s capacity for moral reasoning: called dongshi (understanding things) �When the son reaches the age of dongshi (understanding/reason), the father must be serious and proper in his speech and way of living in order to teach his son.�

15. I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) In Sima Guang�s ???(AD1019-86) Jia fan?? (Family Examples): �As soon as the child can eat by himself, he must be taught to eat with his right hand. Family discipline must begin as soon as the child can talk and begin to know things. By the age of six, teaching of numbers and names of things must begin.� Cheng brothers ????(11 century Confucian scholars) said, �People in ancient times discipline their children as soon as they can eat and talk.�

16. I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Filial devotion? must be taught to toddlers as soon as they can walk/talk. E.g. to pay daily respect to grandparents and to address elderly properly. �The family regulations are such that as soon as a child begins to understand, he is not only taught to obey, but also loses his freedom of action.� Yan�s Family Teaching: even earlier teaching of infant� to be aware of adults� emotional states, to distinguish pleasure from anger. �To educate a daughter-in-law, one must begin on the first of marriage; to educate a child, one must begin with infancy.�

17. I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Chinese produced specific theories of psychological development. Li Shiyi??? (AD1611-72): studying at the age of four, in order to take advantage of an innate capacity for memorization in childhood. For Li, a man by the age of 15 should develop certain capacity, and should be pushed harder in learning the classics (The Four Books & Five Texts????) to prepare for the national examination??.

18. I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Chinese scholars take up Confucius as their model teacher and follow a passage in the Analects. (Analects 2.4): Confucius says, �At 15, I set my heart on learning. At 30, I took my stand. At 40, I was no longer in doubt. At 50, I know the propensity of tian. At 60, I follow the my ears were attuned. At 70, I followed the propensity of tian without overstepping the line.� �????????,????,?????,??????,?????,??????????.�

19. I.2 Contemporary Chinese Conceptions of Socialization Chinese socialization: training for obedience for proper conduct for impulse-control for the acceptance of social obligations **A relative lack of emphasis is given to independence, assertiveness, and creativity (these are extremely important features for Western child-socialization).

20. I.2.1Various Chinese Areas: Shanghai What is a Good Child? 1. good moral character (loved others, group-oriented, cooperative, respects elders, good manners, dongshi, an understanding of adults� desires) 2. Intelligence (eager to study in school, to do homework, smart, a quick learner) 3.obedience (obeys the rules, self-reliant, not depending on parents for dressing, washing, and studying) 4. good health 5. good personality (lively, active, autonomous, confident, brave)

21. I.2.1 Various Chinese Areas: Shanghai What is a good parent? 1. One is responsible about her child receiving a good education. 2. One who behaves oneself so as to set a good model for the child. The goal of child training in the family: 1. Carry out moral education for the children, especially in teaching honesty and bravery. 2. To coach the child to study 3. To enrich the child�s good personality 4. To support the school, ensure the child does homework

22. I.2.1 Various Chinese Areas: Shanghai Boys and girls should receive equal levels of education, a departure from traditional Chinese attitude. Mothers expect to discipline boys more severely than do fathers. This also varies from traditional thinking. Mothers are taking a more active and decisive role in disciplining children, same in Taiwan and Hong Kong.

23. I.2.1 Various Chinese Areas: Shanghai Parents opposed the traditional idea: �when parents discipline the child, he or she should obey and should not talk back.� Yet, many traditional ways: �Praising children is harmful to children�s development.� �If a child fails in school, the entire family is ashamed.� �Parents should not display intimacy in the presence of their child.� �Parents oppose to the idea that they need to educate their older child to learn about dating.�

24. I.2.2 Various Chinese Areas: Southern Taiwan First, moulding a child�s character to fulfill moral teaching is the main goal of socialization at home. Parents should teach desirable values (respect for elders and identification with Chinese culture). To teach a child manners and that they should obey rules. To learn to �become human.� (zuo ren??) Most parents expect children to achieve in school and to graduate from college. Most do not agree that children should be assertive, as they value a loving parent-child relationship.

25. I.2.2 Various Chinese Areas: Southern Taiwan Different from Shanghai parents: How parents should behave in rearing their children. Parents should show loving, tender care to children, a view that disagrees with the ancient Confucian maxim that a father must be strict & a mother must be kind. Parents agree that a child should have a say in matter that affect them. Parents should keep promises and apologize if they are wrong. Contrast with parents in Shanghai: Taiwanese parents agree on embracing and kissing to show love. It is all right to show intimacy with their spouse in front of their children.

26. I.2.2 Various Chinese Areas: Southern Taiwan Parents are against strict disciplinary measures: against the use of corporal punishment They do not believe parents are always right

27. I.2.3 Various Chinese Areas: Singapore Parents are more conservative/ traditional in many aspects of childhood socialization than the other two areas. Goal of socialization: 1. education 2. maintenance of Chinese identity (e.g. when grown up, not to marry a person who is not Chinese) 3. assertiveness (more Westernized).

28. I.2.3 Various Chinese Areas: Singapore Parents took the position that they are more Westernized, citing that they allow their children to be assertive. However, they retain many traditional Chinese values in the areas of family education, moral education, and on interpersonal relationships.

29. I.2.3 Various Chinese Areas: Singapore The importance of discipline in early childhood: �The child should obey and not be allowed to talk back.� In order to discipline a child effectively, many parents admit to have sometimes threatened the child, such as reporting them to a teacher or a policeman. They depend less on physical punishment than do parents on the Mainland, they profess to not entirely dismissing corporal punishment in creating a filial son. A child must show respect for adults, and elderly in particular. Not proper to show intimacy in front of their children.

30. How About Hong Kong? Mixture/Fusion of both Chinese and Western influences Over 97% are ethnic Chinese 2 written and 3 spoken languages What do you think � Chinese identity, parental control, independence????

31. I.2 Contemporary Chinese Socialization: Summary All Chinese parents share certain basic values and practices. They pay attention to train children to develop a moral character, such as respecting elders, cooperating and maintaining harmonious social relations. They help and push children to achieve in school, and expects adults to set examples for children to emulate. Young parents may not be harsh disciplinarians, but they still expect children to obey, to act on parents� command.

32. II. Emotion among the Chinese Arthur Kleinman (Harvard anthropologist, 1986 paper): Chinese tend to believe emotion to be dangerous, value moderation?? in all matters, and emphasize social harmony over individual expression. i.e., emotional behavior is normatively moderate or suppressed. In traditional Chinese medicine, extreme emotions are thought to cause/closely related to physical illness (e.g. depression/worries & illness in liver ??&???)

33. II.1 Emotional Behavior in a Social Context Potter (1988 paper) provides a different analysis: Emotions are less relevant in China than they are in the West. Emotions are best ignored like minor aches and pains. They do not achieve social ends and are not needed to legitimate social relationships. Harmful emotions can therefore be discouraged; others emotions can be expressed but ignored.

34. II.1 Emotional Behavior in a Social Context According to Potter�s research, villagers in his research did not expect emotional expressiveness to help in achieving an end. (e.g. anger would not help repeal an unpopular policy/ make a travel permit available). E.g. The open expression of sorrow did not elicit public sympathy. Expression of sorrow did not elicit any valued response, and sharing of emotion was not a sign of intimacy between individuals.

35. II.2 (Romantic) Love in Traditional Chinese Community Potter: In China, social order/ relationships and behavior do not require an emotional basis. In the West, love is thought to be the proper basis of relationship between husband and wife and between father and son. In Potter�s Chinese village, romantic love was not required for a successful marriage or filial piety. Marriages were arranged between persons from different villages. Love between two persons in the same village brings harm.

36. II.2 (Romantic) Love in Traditional Chinese Community A father who expressed affection for a son was thought to invite a breakdown of proper respect. Love, rather than affirming the social structure, was seen to endanger it. �Romantic love is culturally alien in Mainland China� marriage choice is ideally based on �good feelings.�� A person with good feelings toward another is willing to work and sacrifice on behalf of that person. i.e. unconditional responsibility and altrusim Love: oi-ching??, a new term in Chinese

37. II.2 (Romantic) Love in Traditional Chinese Community However, Jankowiak (1993 paper): in his study of Hohhot, the capital of the inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. Romantic love as the theme of films and magazines. Young people date and fall in love. Jankowiak: �Romantic love existed well before the founding of the Han dynasty, in some cases, actually thrived in the face of powerful parental opposition.�

38. II.2 (Romantic) Love in Traditional Chinese Community Traditional marriage: arranged, without passionate love; but emphasis obligation & duty Yet, as early as in Shijing ?? of Zhou? Dyansty, there is romantic love. Also in a lot of traditional in poetry/fiction/drama� Very often, there is love between a man & a prostitute/ a concubine when the man can make his own choice of his lover.

39. III. The Role of Belief in Chinese Culture In theorizing about the structure of values, one has to meet 3 universal requirements of social existence: Needs of individual Needs for coordinated social interaction Needs for the survival and well-being of the group This functional framework should be applicable to beliefs: Psychological beliefs Social beliefs Environmental beliefs

40. III.1.1 A Review of Traditional Chinese Psychological Beliefs Psychological beliefs: A central assumption of Confucianism: people are essential benevolent (ren). i.e., Confucian emphasis education regardless of social class reflect the belief that all individuals have the potential to be developed. The emphasis on effort in educational settings is related to this Confucian belief of perfectibility.

41. III.1.2 A Review of Traditional Chinese Social Beliefs Social beliefs: individuals are believed to have to ability to develop their moral standards and to abide by them. This belief in individual morality (being ren) is often used to explain the lack of an objective consistent legal system in traditional Chinese societies. Chinese do not, as Westerners, regard the existence of explicit rules as being important to social order.

42. III.1.2 A Review of Traditional Chinese Social Beliefs Chinese seem to favor fewer rules and a higher level of flexibility in following what rules are set out. Chinese believe that they can evaluate their own behavior against their own internal moral standards. It is natural for them to diminish the importance of external regulation by rules.

43. III.1.3 A Review of Traditional Chinese Environmental Beliefs Environmental beliefs: Feng shui is a supernatural belief shared by traditional and modern Chinese. Fung Shui: the positions of building and furniture relative to each other and in relation to the physical environment can influence the events that occur in the building. To avoid bad luck and to increase good luck, the positioning of a building and furniture should be arranged in a way that takes into account the neighboring environment. People often employ a fung shui expert for advice.

44. III.2. Contemporary Psychological Beliefs II.2.1 Locus of Control???? III.2.2 Externality & the Nature of the Outcome??????? III.2.3 Effort and Ability Attributions in Academic Situation???????? III.2.4 Beliefs about Self-Concept????

45. III.2.1 Locus of Control Locus of control: internal/external Internal control????: the belief that reinforcements are under the control of the individual. E.g. diligent External control????: reinforcements are under the control of external forces, e.g. fate, luck, chance It is widely agreed in literature that because of the collectivistic orientation, Chinese tend to possess a stronger belief in external control (fate, deterministic) than Westerners.

46. III.2.1 Locus of Control � disagreement in research Tsui (1978 paper): HK Chinese undergraduates were more internal than were American-born Chinese undergraduates in the US. Hung (1974 paper): undergraduates in Taiwan did not differ from the Americans in internality. Smith, Trompenaars, & Dugan (1993 paper): Chinese are not necessarily more external than are all Westerners.

47. III.2.2 Externality & the Nature of the Outcome Humility?, which originates from Confucianism, is a norm in Chinese culture. Chinese employees in Taiwan evaluated their performance less positive than did their supervisors, a pattern opposite to that commonly observed in the US.

48. III.1.2 Externality & the Nature of the Outcome The humility norm is related to the attributional pattern of the Chinese, who tend to make external attributions for successes (others� joint effort) and internal attributions for failures (blaming oneself). HK Chinese subjects made self-effacing attributions for their performance in public but self-enhancing attributions in private. The salience of the humility norm in Chinese societies suggests that Chinese people select more internal explanations for failures than for success, the US the opposite.

49. III.1.2 Externality & the Nature of the Outcome The internality of Chinese is qualified by the nature of the outcome. Chinese were more external for successful events than were the US.

50. III.2.3 Effort and Ability Attributions in Academic Situation Compared with Americans, Chinese believe that academic achievements is more strongly related to effort. Chinese parents of primary students in Taiwan put more stress on the importance of hard work, and less on the importance of innate ability, than did American parents in explaining their children�s academic results. Such an emphasis on efforts is rooted in human malleability which is advocated by Confucianism.

51. III.2.4 Self-Concept Chinese culture: group-oriented, believing the group rather than the individual is the basic unit in society. The collective self??? was more salient for subjects from China than for the US. Chinese identify themselves as the member of a specific group. Yet, Chinese subjects from HK responded at a level similar to the US. So, was the difference due to cultural or political & economic differences?

52. III.2.4 Beliefs about Self-Concept Chinese self entails components that are not observed in the West. Chinese hold a less positive view of the self than do the US. Why? Bond (1986): the humility norm in Chinese societies may lead to a less positive evaluation of the self, and that �in the absence of further research, one cannot assume that low self-esteem in the Chinese has the same implications for social functioning as the same level in respondents from some other cultures.�

53. III.2.4 Beliefs about Self-Concept The idea of �yuan�? (predestined interpersonal affinity) is endorsed in Chinese societies. Yuan refers to the belief that interpersonal outcomes are determined by fate or supernatural forces. Yuan, as an external explanation for those who enjoy a positive interpersonal relationship and protect the face of others who enjoy less interpersonal relationship.

54. III.3 Contemporary Social BeliefsIII.3.1 Collectivist Beliefs Chinese: collectivistic Because the futures of individuals from the same in-group are inter-related and that each person�s well-being depends upon the results of collective effort. If each person follows the norms of the group and acts in the interest of the group, the group will be harmonious and prosperous. E.g. Chinese subjects in HK allocated a larger share of a group reward to in-group members than did American subjects.

55. III.3 Contemporary Social Beliefs III.3.1 Collectivist Beliefs The collectiveness of Chinese leads them to believe that an effective way to get things done is often through one�s guanxi ??(interpersonal connections). Chinese tend to believe that out-group members are less likely to be dependable and trustworthy than are members of the in-group.

56. III.3 Contemporary Social Beliefs III.3.1 Collectivist Beliefs In Chinese culture, it is widely believe that it is more effective to resolve disputes through negotiation and compromise rather than through confrontation. Chinese subjects from HK prefer mediation???? over adjudication?? in dispute processing, whereas US subjects prefer both to the same extent. Chinese employees in HK, when ranked the five conflict resolution: compromise first and competition last; UK managers who worked in HK: competition second and compromise third.

57. III.3.2 Beliefs Related to Power Distance???? Social structure for Chinese: hierarchical and exhibits a large power distance. The basic belief is that the ideal way to organize a collective is through a well-defined hierarchy, with explicit responsibilities for each role in the hierarchy. E.g. the typical leadership pattern in Chinese societies tends to be paternalistic??and authoritarian???.

58. III.4 Contemporary Environmental Beliefs III.4.1 Primary & Secondary Control Primary control is a predominant strategy in the West. In order to attain one�s goal and wishes, one has to attempt to bring about objective changes in the environment. Secondary control is prevalent in the East. Because of the emphasis on interdependence and harmony in groups, people should show a stronger tendency to adjust themselves to fit the environment. Chinese believe that secondary control is a more effective way to attain their goals than is primary control.

59. III.4.2 Beliefs about Uncertain Events British subjects tend to adopt a probabilistic view of uncertainty and are able to assess the likelihood of occurrence of uncertain events more accurately. The South-east Asian subject (including HK people) tend to view the world in terms of total certainty or uncertainty, and were less inclined to make a probabilistic judgment of uncertain events.

60. III.4.2 Beliefs about Uncertain Events A probabilistic view of the world is conductive to a rational approach to decision-making and to use of facts and figures in coming to a decision, and it is derived from the social logic of low power distance. A non-probabilistic world-view would diminish the importance of objective facts and figures, thus making the role of intuition important and arbitrary authority acceptable. e.g. major business deals are made by Chinese tycoons (the head of the company) rather than meticulous calculations by the management.