Population Ecology I. Attributes II.Distribution

1. Population Ecology I. Attributes II.Distribution III. Population Growth – changes in size through time IV. Species Interactions V. Dynamics of Consumer-Resource Interactions VI. Competition VII. Mutualisms

2. A. Overview 1. Dynamics - NET fitness benefit to both populations - diffuse (many partners) or species specific - facultative (not necessary) or obligate - strength of feedback loop depends on the degree of “obligateness”

3. A. Overview 1. Dynamics 2. Historical Importance - endosymbiotic origin of Eukaryotes

4. A. Overview 1. Dynamics 2. Historical Importance - endosymbiotic origin of Eukaryotes - symbiotic origin of multicellularity

6. A. Overview 1. Dynamics 2. Historical Importance - endosymbiotic origin of Eukaryotes - symbiotic origin of multicellularity - symbiotic efficiencies in energy harvest by nearly all life forms

7. Corals and zooxanthellae Aphid farming by ants Frugivory Gleaners Pollination Protozoans in Termites

8. A. Overview 1. Dynamics 2. Historical Importance - endosymbiotic origin of Eukaryotes - symbiotic origin of multicellularity - symbiotic efficiencies in energy harvest by nearly all life forms - at planetary scale, there are complementary and dependent roles

9. White – increase reflectance, lower temperature of planet. White flower doesn’t overheat, but doesn’t work well at low temps. Black – increase absorption, increase temperature of planet. Work well at low temps, but overheat at high temps.

10. A. Overview 1. Dynamics 2. Historical Importance 3. Cultural Resistance culture science

11. A. Overview B. Modeling Mutualism Effect of second species increases population growth dN1/dt = rN1 ((K1-N1 + aN2)/K1) dN2/dt = rN2 ((K2-N2 + bN1)/K2)

12. N1 increases (beneath its K), but N2 declines because there aren’t enough N1’s to allow N2 to maintain this large a population. Both get bigger and bigger (run-away) N2 reaches its K when N1 = 0. But N2 > K when N1 > 0.

13. Stable equilibrium – both maintained at a stable equilibrium above K.

14. Obligate mutualism – a minimum number of partners are required to maintain a population above zero. So, there needs to be at least 50 N2 individuals for N1 to grow (above its isocline). To sustain more N1 individuals, more N2 are needed.

15. So here, there are 170 N2 individuals and that’s enough for the 5 individuals In the N1 population to grow. However, with only 5 N1 individuals, N2 declines. This eventually causes a decline in N1, as they are obligate mutualists.

16. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

17. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients 1-Esophagus2-Stomach3-Small Intestine4-Cecum (large intestine) - F5-Colon (large intestine)6-Rectum Low efficiency - high throughput...

18. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

19. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

20. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

21. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

22. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

23. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients

24. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients Rhizobium bacteria fix nitrogen, breaking N2 into N, which reacts with water and oxygen to form NO2 and NO3 that can be absorbed by plant. Infect legumes; plant provides sugars.

25. C. Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients Ectomycorrhiza and “Endo”- or arbuscular mycorrhizae

26. Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrientss Lichens – an alga and a fungus

27. Trophic Mutualisms – help one another get nutrients Mixed foraging flocks

28. Defensive Mutualisms – Trade protection for food

29. Defensive Mutualisms – Trade protection for food Ants ‘farm’ the fungus, culturing it on a chewed-leaf mulch.

30. Defensive Mutualisms – Trade protection for food Acacia and Acacia ants

31. Induced and Constitutive Defenses in Acacia. The species in the right-hand column have mutualistic relationships with ant species - the ants nest in the thorns. Those on the left can attract ants with extra-floral nectary secretions, but the ants do not nest. The Acacia species on the left increase their nectar secretions after damage, inducing wandering ants to come visit and stay a while. The species on the right have to support the ant colonies all the time, and nectar production is uniformly high and unaffected by damage.

32. Induced and Constitutive Defenses in Acacia. The species in the right-hand column have mutualistic relationships with ant species - the ants nest in the thorns. Those on the left can attract ants with extra-floral nectary secretions, but the ants do not nest. The Acacia species on the left increase their nectar secretions after damage, inducing wandering ants to come visit and stay a while. The species on the right have to support the ant colonies all the time, and nectar production is uniformly high and unaffected by damage. WHICH CAME FIRST??

33. Induced and Constitutive Defenses in Acacia. Induced defenses first, then the obligate relationship evolved…

34. Todd M. Palmer,Maureen L. Stanton, Truman P. Young,Jacob R. Goheen,Robert M. Pringle,Richard Karban. 2008. Breakdown of an Ant-Plant Mutualism Follows the Loss of Large Herbivores from an African Savanna. Science 319:192-195. Fig. 1. Rewards produced in the presence (white bars) and absence (gray bars) of large herbivores by A. drepanolobium occupied by different species of Acacia ants. Ant species' abbreviations are indicated as: Cs, C. sjostedti; Cm, C. mimosae; Cn, C. nigriceps; Tp, T. penzigi. Plants produce fewer rewards when large herbivores are absent and herbivory rates are LOWER. Bribing ants to stay and protect them is less important.

35. Todd M. Palmer,Maureen L. Stanton, Truman P. Young,Jacob R. Goheen,Robert M. Pringle,Richard Karban. 2008. Breakdown of an Ant-Plant Mutualism Follows the Loss of Large Herbivores from an African Savanna. Science 319:192-195. Fig. 2. The proportion of host trees occupied by the four Acacia-ant species in the presence of large herbivores (white bars) and in plots from which large herbivores had been excluded (gray bars) for 10 years. And if large herbivores are excluded and plants produce less nectar, then some ants abandon the trees (the mutualist).

36. Todd M. Palmer,Maureen L. Stanton, Truman P. Young,Jacob R. Goheen,Robert M. Pringle,Richard Karban. 2008. Breakdown of an Ant-Plant Mutualism Follows the Loss of Large Herbivores from an African Savanna. Science 319:192-195. Fig. 3. Average annual growth (white bars ± SEM) and cumulative mortality (gray bars) for host trees occupied by the four Acacia-ant species over an 8-year observation period. Average annual growth increments were calculated for trees continuously occupied over an 8-year period by each ant species, with n = 158, 192, 162, and 75 for trees occupied by C. sjostedti, C. mimosae, C. nigriceps, and T. penzigi, respectively.

37. “Our results indicate that the large herbivores typical of Africansavannas have driven the evolution and maintenance of a widespreadant-Acacia mutualism and that their experimentally simulatedextinction rapidly tips the scales away from mutualism and towarda suite of antagonistic behaviors by the interacting species.Browsing by large herbivores induces greater production of nectaryand domatia rewards by trees, and these rewards in turn influenceboth the behavior of a specialized, mutualistic ant symbiontand the outcome of competition between this mutualist and anon-obligate host-plant parasite. Where herbivores are present,the carbohydrate subsidy provided by host trees plays a keyrole in the dominance of the strongly mutualistic C. mimosae,which is consistent with the hypothesis that plant exudatesfuel dominance of canopy ant species that are specialized usersof these abundant resources (28). In the absence of large herbivores,reduction in host-tree rewards to ant associates results ina breakdown in this mutualism, which has strong negative consequencesfor Acacia growth and survival. Ongoing anthropogenic loss oflarge herbivores throughout Africa (29, 30) may therefore havestrong and unanticipated consequences for the broader communitiesin which these herbivores occur.” Todd M. Palmer,Maureen L. Stanton, Truman P. Young,Jacob R. Goheen,Robert M. Pringle,Richard Karban. 2008. Breakdown of an Ant-Plant Mutualism Follows the Loss of Large Herbivores from an African Savanna. Science 319:192-195.

38. Defensive Mutualisms – Trade protection for food Ants ‘farm’ aphids and drink their ‘honeydew’

39. Cleaning Mutualisms – Trade cleaning for food

40. Cleaning Mutualisms – Trade cleaning for food

41. Cleaning Mutualisms – Trade cleaning for food Fish visit non-cheating cleaners more And watched cleaners cheat less.

42. Dispersive Mutualisms – Trade dispersal for food

43. Dispersive Mutualisms – Trade dispersal for food

44. Dispersive Mutualisms – Trade dispersal for food Orchids, Euglossine Bees, and Wasps.

45. Dispersive Mutualisms – Trade dispersal for food

46. Dispersive Mutualisms – Trade dispersal for food Not mutualism (commensal or parasitic)

47. Population Ecology I. Attributes II.Distribution III. Population Growth – changes in size through time IV. Species Interactions V. Dynamics of Consumer-Resource Interactions VI. Competition VII. Mutualisms VIII. Evolutionary Responses to Species Interactions Why won’t this population unit end?

49. Population Ecology I. Attributes II.Distribution III. Population Growth – changes in size through time IV. Species Interactions V. Dynamics of Consumer-Resource Interactions VI. Competition VII. Mutualisms VIII. Evolutionary Responses to Species Interactions The abiotic environment is often stable, or at least predictable. Other species in the environment are always changing, sometimes as a direct result of changes in other species.

50. “Now, here, you see, it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. If you want to get somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as that!”