Consolidating Power

Consolidating Power 1340-1492

Shape of Europe changing… • Capitol of the Holy Roman Empire moved to Prague • Ottoman Empire took the place of Byzantium • Italy dominated by five major powers: Milan, the papacy, Naples, and republics of Venice and Florence • England and France were centralized monarchies • Spain was created via marriage of Aragon and Castile

Eastern Europe • Bohemia (eastern half of holy roman empire) gained new status as the seat of the Luxembourg imperial dynasty political crisis because most of Europe considered Bohemia a heretic state • Farther north, the cities rather than the landed nobility held the power • Hanse=allied cities • Hanseatic League=loose federation of mainly north German cities formed to protect their mutual interests in defense of trade and art.

Hanseatic League • Linked the Baltic coast with Russia, Norway, the British Isles, France

Western Europe • Four powerful states dominated western Europe: Spain and Burgundy were created by marriage; France and England were forged by war; • The 15th century world was largely monarchical with three important exceptions: • -Switzerland • -Venice • -Florence • Were all republics.

Republics: Swiss COnfederation • like the Hanseatic League in the Baltic, the Swiss confederation had long term alliances and joined equally together in well-organized communities in rural and forested areas. Original purpose was to keep the peace, but they soon pledged to aid one another against the Holy Roman Emperor. • Wealthy merchants and tradesmen dominated the cities of the Swiss Confederation; power in the rural communes gave some ordinary folk political importance; no king, duke or count ever became head of the confederation. • It’s fiercely independent stance against the Holy Roman Empire became a symbol of republican freedom

Republic of Venice • Had an excellent navy and built an extensive empire. Between 1450-1454 Venice fought with Milan for control of Northern Italy, but fear of a France or Ottoman Turk invasion+financial exhaustion led to Peace of Lodi. Italy was a collection of small cities, each with its own contado (surrounding countryside). • Venice was ruled by a Great Council: dominated by important families but never one signore (lord). The doge (leading magistrate at Venice) was elected by the Great Council.

Republic: Florence • Florence was like Venice in that it was a republic, but unlike Venice, its society and political life was turbulent. By 1434 the Medici family dominated the unruly city. Cosimo de’ Medici founded his political power on the wealth of the Medici bank and established new committees made up of men loyal to him to help govern the city. He kept the Florentine constitution intact, governing behind the scenes not by force but through a broad consensus among the ruling elite.

New Tools of Power • New taxes, new knowledge: the newly consolidated states of the 15th century exercised their powers more thoroughly than before. • For example: the Florentine catasto • Catasto=inventory of households within the city. Inquired into names, types of houses, and animals, asking people to specify their trade, private and public investments, real estate holdings, and taxable assets, head of the family, his or her age and marital status, and number of mouths to feed in the household. • Showed that most Florentine households consisted of at least 6 people, the wealthier families having more kids and the poor families having less.

Driving Out Muslims, heretics and jews • Newly rich from national taxes and with more centralized power, fifteenth century kings in western Europe—England, France, and Spain—commanded modern states. Using their new financial power, combined with new technologies of war (cannons and mercenary armies), implemented full force against their internal and external enemies. • For example: Spain

Spanish Inquisition • Seeking to impose religious uniformity and purity, Ferdinand and Isabella began to persecute the conversos. Condemned as traitors and heretics, conversoswre no longer Jews, the inquisitors imposed harsh sentences to purify the land of all Jews who had converted to Christianity. • All Jews were told to convert of leave Spain (about 150,000 Jews left Spain and scattered around the Mediteranean • The final step for Spain was to rid themselves of the last Muslim stronghold: Granada. While they initially promised freedom of religion to the Muslims who chose to remain, the royal couple ended up demanding all Muslims adopt Christianity or leave the kingdom.

Exploration and the new wolrd • Similarly: while Europeans are battling the Muslims and fighting among themselves, Europeans were also pursuing their interests abroad…. • BUT this is something we are going to save for next week!

REformation • How could one argue that philosophies from the Renaissance led to the Reformation?

Christian Humanism • Humanism, specifically Christian Humanism, preached that humanist principles like: • universal human dignity • individual freedom in ones’ relationship with God • were essential components to the teachings of Jesus Christ. And what did Erasmus believe?

Erasmus • Erasmus believed that it was only through education could people reform themselves and society. Charity and good works—not empty religious ceremonies—would mark true religion. • What does this thesis imply or rely on?

It relies on the idea that • 1) education was available (an effect of the Renaissance) and • 2) reformation and penance was not something that only the church could control. • The idea that one could be in their control of their own penance and not have to rely on the church to receive atonement is very revolutionary and is the key to what Luther ends up doing… • Eventually, Erasmus chose Christian unity in order to avoid war, as angry, younger men with radical ideas led to a schism within the Catholic church.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Started the Protestant Reformation

Background to Europe • -- So we have the Renaissance which led to the idea of Christian Humanism— • From the Renaissance we also have an increased number of urban middle class—especially university trained middle class-- why? This was a quiz question…..

Because of the increase of trade and material production led to an increase of towns and more people moving from the agriculture sector and the countryside to these towns, now growing into cities. • create flow chart! • Thus, an increase of education was a product of the printing press—it was easier and there was more for people to learn how to read and write. • And universities was then a product of the philosophers involved in the Renaissance who valued education and the study of the humanities. This increase of literate artisans will come into play with Martin Luther’s movement because they, as literate people, began to yearn for a faith that was more meaningful to their daily lives…they could read and thus, thinking and studying the Bible was available…

Background to Luther • Martin Luther—Augustinian order. • Religious Crisis: did not feel saved • Became convinced that sinners were saved only through faith. What actions/habits in the Catholic Church does this idea oppose? • He also believed that no amount of good works could produce the faith on which salvation depended (who does this counter?)…

Yes: Luther denounced the selling of indulges a a corrupt practice! • But he took it one step further—like the sacrament of penance itself—this action of spiritual duties, of confessing your sin to a priest who can then offer you absolution and impose penance, was ultimately useless unless on had faith.

How to have faith/Luther’s Message • Christians could appeal directly to God for salvation. • (You can see how this would appeal to townspeople’s spiritual needs and social vision…)

Who were the Earliest Supporters?? • Called themselves the Evangelicals: • younger Christian humanists • Clerics who shared this critical attitude towards church establishment • Many urban people with middle-class background…sound familiar? Who are these people? • The merchants, artisans, literate urban laypeople…

But also illiterate artisans supported Luther, almost with a fanatical zeal. They and he believed they were living in the last days of the world: • This was the Last Judgment

Luther’s Works • Look for a progression of rebellion here: • Freedom of a Christian—addressed to Pope Leo X said that faith, not good works, saved sinners from damnation and that professional clerics should not hold saw over a person’s faith. • To the Nobility of the German Nation—appealed to German identity and to the nobles to help the reform • On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church—condemned the papcy as the embodiment of the Antichrist

From Rome’s Perspective? • “Luther Affair”—Martin Luther was just one pesky and unruly monk. • Pope ordered him to keep quiet, Luther said no, and Luther was called in to appear before the emperor Charles V, in 1521 to defend his faith at the Imperial Diet of Worms • (Charles V was Holy Roman Emperor, most powerful ruler in 16th century Europe—reigned over Low Countries, Spain, Spain’s Italian and New World dominions, and the Austrian Habsburg lands)

Diet of the WOrms • Luther did not back down, but he was under the protection of Frederick the Wise (elector of Saxony who was one of 7 who was bribed by Charles V in order to become HRE emperor) so Luther was not punished. • Mistake for Charles the V: propaganda flooded German towns. Spread like wildfire and the movement slowly went from Wittenberg to Scandinavia where reformers who studied in Germany brought back the faith and converted the kings.

Diet of Worms

Protestantism spreads and divides… • Two other reformers step forward Zwingli (another challenger/reformer) • Zwingli three years after Luther declared himself a reformer in Zurich. (he was chief preacher in Zurich) • John Calvin (about 20 years after Martin Luther), a French born humanist who led reform in Geneva, Switzerland 1541-1564

Zwingli • Contrasting these reformers: • Like Luther, he attacked the corruption of the Catholic Church hierarchy and questioned fasting and clerical celibacy. • Unlike Luther, he didn’t agree on Luther’s definition of the Eucharist

Eucharist • Catholic doctrine: • When Priest consecrated the bread and wine of communion—they actually turned into body and blood of Christ • Luther: • Insisted that the bread and wine were simultaneously bread and wine and blood and body of Christ. • Zwingli: • Viewed the bread and wine as symbols of Christ’s union with believers. Not real body and blood…

Why does this matter? • It concerns the role of the priest and the church in shaping the relationship between God and believer. • Luther and Zwingli never ended up agreeing on this…but the issue of the Eucharist soon divides Lutherans and Calvinists as well…

John Calvin (1509-1564) • -Sought salvation through intense theological study • -Under his leadership, Geneva became a Christian republic • Like Luther: agreed with idea that salvation cannot be earned through good works and that God is almighty and no Christian can be certain of salvation. • UNLIKE Luther: Calvin’s theory of predestination

Predestination • is the idea that God ordained every man, woman, and child to salvation or damnation…but before the creation of the world. • This means that God saves only “the elect” • What else does this mean?

scary • How do you know if you are one of the elect?!! • Calvin says that a righteous life can be a sign that your life has been chosen for salvation. This demanded rigorous discipline. • What does this look like? • People who could maintain their devout, pious lifestyle inherently prove (and believe) that they are part of the elect and will achieve salvation.

Geneva • Fused church and society into what was called the Reformed church • Became a theocratic city-state dominated by Calvin and the elders of the Reformed church • From its base in Geneva, the Calvinist movement spread to France, the Low Countries, England, Scotland, German states, Poland, Hungary and eventually New England

Religious tolerance of reformation • Did not exist. Each religious group believed that their doctrine was the best and absolutely true and grounded in the Bible. Thus violence in its defense was not only justified but required. • As an example, Calvin had Michael Servetus arrested and executed for questioning the doctrine of the Trinity. • The harshest words were saved for the Jews (who Calvin called “profane, unholy, sacreligious dogs,” who Luther advocated the burning of houses and their synagogues)…

So we are still far from religious toleration…

Consolidating Power