Paul Jenkins Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements

1. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo Paul Jenkins Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements Urban Studies, School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh http://www.sbe.hw.ac.uk/staffprofiles/J/PaulJenkins.htm Research Professor in Architecture Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture http://www.esala.ac.uk/people/academics/pjenkins.html

2. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Introduction • Sources of information and nature of underlying research • Urbanisation in Sub-Saharan Africa and Mozambique • The scale, context and nature of urbanisation • The concept of informality • Maputo: A brief historical overview of urban expansion and land occupation • Political economic forces and socio-cultural values • Maputo: Recent trends and new ways of understanding the ‘urban’ • Hiding from or imitating the state • Implications for urban development • Challenging embedded concepts of order and disorder in urban space and form Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

3. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Sources of information and nature of underlying research • Working professionally in Mozambique as city planner Maputo 1980-5 and then at central government level (including with international agencies) 1985-1993 – latter period including social research • Continued professional engagement in urban issues in Mozambique, including Maputo since on short-term basis • ESRC funded project 2000-1 on emerging urban land markets in the city • Current Danish Research Council funded project 2009-11 on ‘Home Space in African cities’, based in Maputo • Continued wider research into the history of the city as well as current trends • Personal engagement in Mozambican society from early 1980s to present • Sources of information are both formal (‘professional’, ‘academic’) and informal • Academic engagement includes architecture, planning, anthropology and urban history (physical and social) Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

4. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Urbanisation in Sub-Saharan Africa: scale and economic context • Sub-Saharan Africa is the last global macro-region to begin to urbanise, a process which is well underway • In 1950 SSA had 33 million urban residents = 4.5% world population • In 2005 it had some 330 million urban residents = 11% world population • In 2030 it is estimated to have 730 million urban residents = 15% world population • This process is happening in quite unique context of high levels of general poverty • High proportion of least developed countries • Two decades of economic stagnation and structural marginalisation, • Some recent changes e.g. Chinese/Brazilian investment • For more see Chapters 1 & 9 in Jenkins, Smith & Wang (2006) “Housing and Planning in the Rapidly Urbanising World”, Routledge Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

5. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Urbanisation in Sub-Saharan Africa: nature • Urban settlements of ancient origin, usually linked to exchange and trade • Fixed urban settlement reinforced by European mercantilism (16th century on) and later colonisation (late 19th century) • Colonial control over urban settlement removed at independence leading to rapid rise in urban population through rural-urban migration (post 1950s) • While in-migration still important, natural population growth in urban areas is generally now more significant • Tendency to primacy in urban form, however recent trends in urbanisation leading to proportional growth in secondary and tertiary urban areas • Increasing complexity of urban migratory trends, including international, circular and intra-urban • Many ‘not-urban, not-rural’ settlement forms and ‘straddling’ survival mechanisms developing due to limited economic absorption in urban economies Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

6. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • UN estimates SSA had 166 million ‘slum dwellers’ in 2001 (72% urban population) • By 2015 this is estimated to double to 332 million • The 146 million new slum dwellers in SSA will far outstrip UN goals (improve lives of 100 million slum dwellers worldwide) • The concept of urban informality • This is predicated on: • Limited (and often decreasing) forms of ‘formal’ economic growth – and lack of recognition of importance of urban-based economies in policy (including international organisations) • Government decentralisation not being accompanied by resources in urban areas and limited government capacity to regulate the ‘formal’ • ‘Informal settlements’ are now generally seen as ‘slums’ – is this a return of a puritanical attitude, or a different form of anti-urban bias? • The majority of urban dwellers live and work in situations of so-called ‘informality’ • There is a need for a new attitude to the life-work conditions of the urban poor majority, one based on social legitimacy and not some form of idealised urban normality drawn from other places and other times Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

7. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo: A brief historical overview of urban expansion and land occupation: a story of political economic forces and socio-cultural values • Early colonial period 1850-1915 • Middle colonial period 1915-1955 • Late colonial period 1955-1975 • Early independent period 1975-1990 • More recent independent period 1990-2010 • Jenkins (2009) “African cities: competing claims on urban land”, chapter in ‘African cities: competing claims on urban spaces’, Nugent & Locatelli (eds), Brill, Leiden Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

8. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo expansion: Early colonial period 1850-1915 • Small permanent trading settlement consolidated with land leasing arrangements from Crown (1858). Large scale foreign land speculation in 1860s. • Gold discovered in Transvaal 1870s, leading to rapid growth of port. Annexation of land to north with hut tax established 1882. Railway built from 1886 - 1895. First land register established 1886. Town raised to city status by Crown 1887. • Indigenous land rights removed 1890, except in ‘reserves’ . Partition of Africa at Berlin Conference 1894/5 required consolidation of area of military control, which was expanded to subordinate the indigenous (Nguni) Gaza state to north. Capital of colony moved to city 1895, first expansion plan 1896, state investment in major public works Original European settlement 1876 plan, initial expansion plan 1878, final expansion plan 1903 Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

9. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo expansion: Early colonial period 1850-1915 • Early 20th century. State bought back land holdings in northeast outside of previous boundary but some foreign speculators resisted – legal disputes lasted until mid 20th century. Slow physical development of planned settlement until tram installed 1920s • Urban area expanded informally to northwest with small colonial land concessions – used for informal African housing from late 1920s - northeast development blocked by land speculators Maputo 1915, showing wider area to come within the land cadastre, incorporating previous areas of indigenous settlement, informal development and land speculation Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

10. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo expansion: Middle colonial period 1915-1955 • Middle 20th century. Colonial settlement schemes and indigenous labour migration underpinned rapid urban expansion: former in ‘cement city’ with class and racial division, and latter in informal settlements, mostly renting land/housing from settler landowners (northwest). Housing scheme for ‘assimilados’ built 1940s • During late 1940s industrial production started and some new satellite settlements developed (e.g. Machava). New urban master plan prepared by 1952 – avoiding most northwest informal settlements but requiring expropriation or engagement with large foreign landowners to Northeast (to restrain new speculative development) 1925 cadastre plan showing informal area (NW); 1952 area of speculator blockage (NE) and 1952 urban plan Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

11. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo expansion: Late colonial period 1955-1975 • Continued rapid demographic expansion with sponsored immigration and limited effective control of inward rural migration. Formal development pushed upwards due to informal settlement barriers northwest and slow resolution of northeast land disputes. Urban land registry area in Maputo extended significantly to north 1965 - 88% of 770 Ha in private freehold/leasehold, 85% held by 11 landowners • Change of legislation on foreign inward investment led to late industrial boom, generally settled in new town to west (Matola) leapfrogging informal areas and also due to land availability/cost. Associated sites and services areas developed for indigenous workforce and change of legislation allowed indigenous urban land holding. • 1970s – Belated attempt to control increasing informal settlements in Maputo with new Master Plan (1969-1972) and new Metropolitan Urban Planning Authority - including new sites and services developments and improving services to informal settlements. 1972 master plan Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

12. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo expansion: Early independent period 1975-90 • widespread pent-up in-migration and limited action (reactive/proactive) • 1975-6 start of sites and services in Maputo • 1977-9 state action through UN supported expanded sites & services (Machava), and informal upgrading (Maxaquene) • City council ‘basic urbanisation programme’ in urban periphery 1980-5 provides 10,400 new plots for lower income groups, but soon to collapse due to political clientelism • 1989 OperacaoProducao’ - failed to restrict urban in-migration, civil war has an increasing effect in southern region • Massive in-migration in late 1980s, early 1990s due to war and collapse of rural economy Land occupation maps based on aerial photography Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

13. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Maputo expansion: More recent independent period 1990-2010 Informal settlement continuing to north of Matola within reach of road access (limited in interior) Densification of formal land layouts and Informal settlements in Matola Formal sector speculation ties up all land around New motorway to South Africa New aluminium factory (with associated residential development) in province increasingly attracting informal settlement Mix of formal sector speculation and informal settlement into province Informal settlement continuing on escarpment into neighbouring provincial district Marracuene Formal sector speculative land grabbing and some layouts along main north road, informal settlements across municipal boundaries Mix of formal layouts for middle class and densifying informal settlement on coastal plain Speculation at Catembe to south of the bay and lobbying for bridge to realise land values Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

14. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo Maputo: Recent trends and new ways of understanding the ‘urban’ • 1997-8 construction of new motorway to Witwatersrand led to distant relocation of people to new housing area to northeast of city – this led to wider engagement in illegal land market • 2000 study identified emerging land markets as major way to access land despite continued nationalised status • Floods of 2000 led to major donor assistance in re-housing people – area available an extension of 1982 sites & service area to north • Heightened sense of land values led to extensive ‘corrupt’ / non-regulated land access practices, which have now become the de facto norm for land development As recent research has shown, a strong tendency in this process is to ‘imitate the state’ in informal land development, as well as housing (Nielson 2009, 2010 ) Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

15. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo Informal continuation of ‘planned’ land development by ‘traditional’ landholders, city council officials and local administrators for personal gain Core of the 2000-1 emergency housing area 1982 sites & service area, only effectively occupied by early1990s 1990s ad-hoc partially planned sites for teachers etc Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

16. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo The alternative strategy is more one of ‘hiding’ from the state Here traditional land holders sell of land around their own home spaces in areas less well accessed Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

17. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo Maputo: Recent trends and new ways of understanding the ‘urban’ • This current situation reflects both strong socio-cultural interests and political economic forces where the boundaries between the 'formal' and 'informal' are kept fuzzy • In this 'grey area' a range of new attitudes and practices develop which are exploited by the poor as well as the rich, the weak as well as the powerful - albeit differentially • the political and economic elite have been speculating in land since the late 1980s, using the lack of legislation to access land through state allocation, and later the new land legislation to consolidate their rights to this land – they occupy the best locations and large areas • the poor operate underneath the state as informally as possible, but aiming to avoid state interference by imitating the state’s norms, or ‘hiding’ from these – adapting socio-culture values to political and economic realities • the emerging middle class has until recently been relatively excluded from this process, but is now acting under new planning legislation to strengthen their land access – this potentially threatens lower-income informal access, especially where this is not ‘planned’ – which is the majority of the city area Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

18. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Implications for urban development 1 • Links between social order and physical order in space and form are historic but varied – however these became dominant in ‘Western’ thought from the Enlightenment and are deeply embedded within the discourse of urban planning • These are largely based on positivist epistemologies that define abstract norms and apply these as a means of control – this process being led by state-licenced expertise • While this was to some extent possible in a world where urban space and form was largely driven by state-dominated political economies (whether capitalist or communist, colonial or post-colonial), it is proving impossible in the urban explosions of the most recent form of globalisation and demographic change • The resources needed to continue to plan rapid urban growth in many parts of the world are not available in the current political economies and hence there is limited physical control by the state – what does this mean for ‘ordered’ urban development Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

19. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Implications for urban development 2 • In this context the binary of what is ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ often becomes a way of the powerful exploiting the majority • As illustrated in Maputo, this produces various approaches by the poor majority to develop urban areas either hidden from, or reflecting, state activity – as this is usually exploitative to the benefit of elites • Any attempts to 'plan' the city here needs to understand the realpolitik of the political economy and emerging hybrid socio-cultural attitudes to urban land, and not necessarily attempt to implant some form of 'rational planned order‘ • Such an approach to what is valid as 'urban' in this context needs to be inductively assessed and not deductively based on imported norms and values of the ‘urban’ • To function, this form of ‘planning’ thus needs to be grounded in de facto culturally embedded perceptions and socially constructed forms of interaction, challenging the state’s de jure dominance of land and environmental resource Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU

20. Changing attitudes to land in the (expanding) urban area of Xilunguine / Lourenço Marques / Maputo • Key sources: • Costa (2007) “O precodasombra: Sobrevivencia e reproducao social entre familias de Maputo” Livros Horizonte, Lisbon • Jenkins (2001) “Emerging land markets for housing in Mozambique: the impact on the poor and alternatives to improve land access and urban development - an action research project in peri-urban Maputo”, Edinburgh College of Art/Heriot-Watt University, School of Planning & Housing, Research Paper No. 75 • Jenkins (2004) “Querying the concepts of formal and informal in land access in developing world - case of Maputo”, chapter in ‘The formal and informal city – what happens at the interface’, Vaa & Hansen (eds), Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala • Jenkins (2006) “The image of the city in Mozambique”, chapter in ‘African urban economies: viability, vitality or vitiation of major cities in East and Southern Africa?’, Bryceson & Potts (eds), Palgrave, Basingstoke • Jenkins (2009) “African cities: competing claims on urban land”, chapter in ‘African cities: competing claims on urban spaces’, Nugent & Locatelli (eds), Brill, Leiden • Jenkins, Smith & Wang (2006) “Housing and planning in the rapidly urbanising world”, Routledge, Oxford • Nielsen (2008) “In the vicinity of the state: House construction, personhood, and the state in Maputo, Mozambique”, PhD: Institute of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen • Nielsen (2010 forthcoming) “Regulating reciprocal distances: House construction projects as inverse governmentality in Maputo, Mozambique”, chapter in ‘Markets for peace’, Buur & Rodgers (eds), Palgrave, Basingstoke Paul Jenkins, Research Professor in Architecture, eca / Professor of Architecture and Human Settlements, HWU