CHAPTER 22

1. CHAPTER 22 NATION STATES AND PATTERNS OF CULTURE IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA, 1750–1871

2. The Five “Great Revolutions” • American 1776-1783 • French 1789-1799 (1815?) • Mexican 1910-1920 (1940?) • Chinese 1911, 1946-1952 • Russian February 1917, October 1917

3. Constitutional Nation-States: 1750–1815 • Britain and France borrowed from wealthy subjects to pay for Seven Years’ War. • Passed burden to all subjects through higher taxes. • Britain acquired France’s lands in India, Canada, and Ohio-Mississippi Valley. • New taxes and tighter oversight by Britain needed to pay for the war.

4. By 1763, North American colonies had rapid demographic and economic growth. • New land required troops to protect settlers and Natives from each other. • Proclamation Act of 1763 limited expansion of settlements to protect Iroquois.

7. American Revolution • Stamp Act of 1765 placed a tax on all paper, to pay for standing troops. • Urban shopkeepers, merchants, and printers all opposed Act. • Led to boycott of British goods, promotions of homemade textiles. • Parliament dissolved Massachusetts’s assembly and upset colonists. • Samuel Adams and John Hancock organized opposition to taxes. • Parliament lifted taxes except for Tea Tax, to establish sovereign right to tax. • Adams called for “No Taxation Without Representation.” • Tea Tax opposed because it was a subsidy for the East India Company. • Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a protest that led to British closing of harbor.

8. Clash of ideological principles: Hobbes, indivisible sovereignty and Locke, equal representation. • Continental Congresses and Continental Association argued voting rights. • Middle classes with property and lower class masses formed a coalition. • Britain tried to seize arms at Concord, but colonists warned by Paul Revere. • Open warfare began, and George Washington led the troops. • Paine’s Common Sense and Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence expressed varied ideas of the colonists. • Rejected Locke’s emphasis on property ownership for broader right to “life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.” • War of Independence led to a republic with less representation than Parliament. • 1787 Constitutional Convention created a federal system with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. • Amendments in the Bill of Rights allowed for the system to evolve.

9. French Revolution • Prior to 1780s France had strong economy and population growth. • However, the French monarchy loaned money to the American revolutionaries, aiding them to break with Britain. • Poor harvests in 1786–1787 limited food production. • Famine worsened by corruption and mismanagement of food supplies. • To avoid bankruptcy, King Louis XVI needed to reform the tax system. • In the Estates General, male voters met in local constituencies according to estate: clergy, aristocrats, and commoners.

10. Third estate the majority but mixed peasants with educated, urban, and even wealthy classes. • Abbe Sieyès wrote “What is the Third Estate?” and argued that they represented the true “national will.” • June 1789 Third Estate breaks off and creates a National Assembly. • Louis XVI mobilized troops around Paris and declared himself the people’s representative. • Parisians mobbed the Bastille and other suppliers of arms.

12. 1789–1792: Stage I of revolution . . . • . . . begins with the Great Fear in which peasants rioted. • Marched on Versailles, forcing king to return to Paris and deal with them. • National Assembly declared the “Rights of Man and of the Citizen. • Catholic Church forced to be under state control. • Constitutional monarchy created and old taxes repudiated.

13. 1792–1795 Stage II of revolution . . . • . . . overturns monarchy and creates radical republic. • Austria and Prussia threaten attack; National Assembly declares war on them instead. • King and queen executed, and a republican constitution created. • Committee of Public Safety created, institutes Reign of Terror. • Robespierre and sans-culottes want to remove opposition to revolution. • Approximately 30,000 French citizens executed.

15. Enforced Enlightenment ideas, such as deism in the Cult of the Supreme Being. • Calendar changed: ten-day week and new names for months. • Metric system implemented and old titles abolished. • Alienated many supporters of the revolution. • Robespierre executed in 1794 Thermidorean Reaction. • Created a new Directory, which was dependent on the army.

16. 1795–1799 Napoleon led the third stage . . . • . . . of military consolidation of power. • In 1799 Napoleon deposed the Directory in favor of himself. • Instituted new Civil Code in 1804, reformed French law. • Crowned emperor in 1804 and tried to conquer Europe. • Constructed a land empire, 1805–1810, planned to attack British naval empire. • Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed an alliance that led to Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

17. Estates General (1789) • Third Estate breaks away - “Communes” • Declares itself the “National Assembly” • Tennis Court Oath • National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791) • Legislative Assembly (1791–1792) • National Convention (1792–1795) • The Directory (1795–1799) • The Consulate (1799-1804)

18. Enlightenment Culture: Radicalism and Moderation • Early Enlightenment shaped by the ideas of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. • Hobbes thought passions were more powerful than reason • Locke believed reason could control passions. • Represent the radical and the moderate branches of the Enlightenment. • Outside of England, Enlightenment writers included Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, and Montesquieu. • Prior to 1750 these writers shared ideas and writings with one another. • Post 1750 Enlightenment ideas were popularized in writing.

19. Voltaire(François-Marie Arouet) • . . . exemplified the philosophe, a “thinker,” in eighteenth-century France. • Imprisoned in the Bastille for insulting a nobleman. • He was exiled to England, where he observed constitutional monarchy. • Also studied the “New Science” associated with Isaac Newton.

20. He returned to France and with his companion Marquise du Chatelet assembled a large library and produced many of his 2,000 writings. • Voltaire went to Prussia, to the court of Frederick the Great, the Enlightened Despot. • Voltaire as a vocal critic of the French monarchy and the Catholic Church. • Most famous text was the novel Candide, a satire of corruption in government and religion.

21. Frederick II(1712 – 1786) King in Prussia 1740–1786 “Frederick the Great“ Friedrich der Große and “Der Alte Fritz“

24. Denis Diderot . . . • . . . editor of the Encyclopédie(1751–1772) exemplified the secular, scholarly, and artistic knowledge popularized by the Enlightenment. • Diderot was an independent writer, a new Enlightenment occupation.

25. Received a stipend from Catherine the Great of Russia. • Diderot was an atheist and wanted to change how the common man thought.

26. Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg Peter III

27. Unlike Diderot, Rousseau and Kant believed in external moral forces. • In the Social Contract, Jean Jacques Rousseau argued that man began in a natural state but civilization had imposed an external authority. • This led to a decline for humanity, who could only return to the natural state through direct democracy of the “natural will.” • Immanuel Kant, in East Prussia, argued for a categorical imperative understanding of morality. • The principle of one’s actions should be the principle of anyone’s actions. • Influenced the idea of basic human rights, and universal freedoms.

28. “No man has any natural authority over his fellow men.” Jean Jacques Rousseau

29. “Duty is the necessity to act out of reverence for the moral law set by the categorical imperative.” Immanuel Kant

30. Economics was another new scholarly discipline of the Enlightenment. • Best represented by Adam Smith, a Scot, who believed in markets free of regulations and restrictions. • Repudiation of the mercantilism of previous centuries. • Adopted French theories about laissez-faire approach to markets.

31. Writers and composers incorporated Enlightenment ideas into their art. • Goethe’s Faust was read as a metaphor for modernity dominant over nature. • Schiller’s Ode to Joy celebrated the Enlightenment ideal of unity of humanity.

32. Ode to Joy Joy, bright spark of divinity,Daughter of Elysium,Fire-inspired we treadThy sanctuary. Thy magic power re-unitesAll that custom has divided,All men become brothersUnder the sway of thy gentle wings.

33. Mozart was part of the Enlightenment fraternity culture, a member of the Freemasons. • Masonic slogan was “liberty, fraternity, and equality.” • Wrote music that appealed to the urban educated classes, who came to dominate the Enlightenment.

34. Beethoven introduced revolutionary compositions, even one dedicated to Napoleon. • Beethoven felt betrayed by Napoleon’s crowning and removed the emperor’s name from the dedication of the Eroicasymphony.

35. Beethoven, 1770-1827 Mozart, 1756-1791