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PERAN GEN DALAM PERKEMBANGAN

PERAN GEN DALAM PERKEMBANGAN. Para peneliti mengklon hewan melalui transplantasi inti. Inti sel telur digantikan oleh inti sel somatik dewasa Sejauh ini, kloning pada manusia belum berhasil hingga menghasilkan embrio kurang dari 6 sel Perkembangan embrio ditentukan oleh ekspresi gen.

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PERAN GEN DALAM PERKEMBANGAN

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  1. PERAN GEN DALAM PERKEMBANGAN

  2. Para peneliti mengklon hewan melalui transplantasi inti • Inti sel telur digantikan oleh inti sel somatik dewasa • Sejauh ini, kloning pada manusia belum berhasil hingga menghasilkan embrio kurang dari 6 sel • Perkembangan embrio ditentukan oleh ekspresi gen

  3. Untuk terapi, kloning dihasilkan dari stem sel embrionik • Stem cells can help patients with damaged tissues • Dalam reproduksi eukariota secara kloning, embrio diimplantasikan di induknya

  4. Donorcell Nucleus fromdonor cell Implant blastocystin surrogate mother Clone of donoris born(REPRODUCTIVEcloning) Removenucleusfrom eggcell Add somaticcell fromadult donor Grow in culture to producean early embryo (blastocyst) Remove embryonic stem cells from blastocyst andgrow in culture Induce stemcells to formspecialized cellsfor THERAPEUTICuse

  5. GENE REGULATION IN PROKARYOTES

  6. Interaksi protein dan DNA pada gen prokariotik: on-off tergantung pada respon perubahan lingkungan • Aliran informasi genetik dari gen ke protein disebut dengan ekspresi gen • Penjelasan awalnya menggunakan pengaturan gene dari bakteri E. coli

  7. Pada prokariot, gen berperan sebagai enzim, pengaturannya secara bersama menjadi unit pengaturan yang disebut operon • Pengaturan pengikatan protein yang mengontrol urutan DNA dan on-off kerja operon diatur oleh perubahan lingkungan

  8. OPERON Regulatorygene Promoter Operator Lactose-utilization genes DNA • Operon lac akan menghasilkan enzim untuk mengurai laktose jika ada laktose mRNA RNA polymerasecannot attach topromoter Activerepressor Protein OPERON TURNED OFF (lactose absent) DNA RNA polymerasebound to promoter mRNA Protein Inactiverepressor Lactose Enzymes for lactose utilization OPERON TURNED ON (lactose inactivates repressor)

  9. Promoter Operator Genes • Dua tipe repressor yang dikontrol oleh operon DNA Activerepressor Activerepressor Tryptophan Inactiverepressor Inactiverepressor Lactose lac OPERON trp OPERON

  10. Diferensiasi sel dan kloning eukariota • Pada eukariota, sel menjadi spesifik seperti zigot berkembang menjadi organisme • Tipe sel yang berbeda menyebabkan perbedaan macam protein penyusunnya • Perbedaan kombinasi gen penyusun protein: aktif setiap tipe sel

  11. Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2 Electrons carried via NADH Oxidativephosphorylation:electron transport andchemiosmosis Citric acid cycle Glycolsis Pyruvate Glucose Cytosol Mitochondrion ATP ATP ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation Substrate-level phosphorylation Figure 9.6 • An overview of cellular respiration

  12. 1 When blood glucose level rises, a gland called the pancreas secretes insulin, a hormone, into the blood. Insulin enhances the transport of glucose into body cells and stimulates the liver and muscle cells to store glucose as glycogen. As a result, blood glucose level drops. 2 Glucagon promotesthe breakdown ofglycogen in theliver and the release of glucose into the blood, increasing bloodglucose level. 4 When blood glucose level drops, the pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon, which opposes the effect of insulin. 3 STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises after eating. Homeostasis: 90 mg glucose/ 100 mL blood STIMULUS: Blood glucose level drops below set point.

  13. Kloning larva katak: inti sel somatik berpotensi genetik dan berkembang menjadi embrio selanjutnya larva katak • Awal eksperimen: transplantasi inti sel hewan (katak) Tadpole (frog larva) Frog egg cell Nucleus UV Intestinal cell Nucleus Transplantationof nucleus Nucleusdestroyed Tadpole Eight-cellembryo

  14. The first mammalian clone, a sheep named Dolly, was produced in 1997 • Dolly provided further evidence for the developmental potential of cell nuclei

  15. Reproductive cloning of nonhuman mammals has applications in basic research, agriculture, and medicine • Scientists clone farm animals with specific sets of desirable traits • Piglet clones might someday provide a source of organs for human transplant

  16. stem sel dapat diperbanyak dan dapat digunakan untuk terapi setelah mengalami diferensiasi sel • Stem sel dewasa dapat di kultur dan mengalami diferensiasi • Diferensiasi sel dipengaruhi oleh perubahan media kultur

  17. Differentiation of embryonic stem cells in culture Liver cells Culturedembryonicstem cells Nerve cells Heart muscle cells Different cultureconditions Different types ofdifferentiated cells

  18. GENE REGULATION IN EUKARYOTES

  19. DNA packing in eukaryotic chromosomes helps regulate gene expression • A chromosome contains a DNA double helix wound around clusters of histone proteins • DNA packing tends to block gene expression

  20. DNAdoublehelix(2-nmdiameter) Histones “Beads ona string” Nucleosome(10-nm diameter) Tight helical fiber(30-nm diameter) Supercoil(200-nm diameter) 700nm Metaphase chromosome

  21. In female mammals, one X chromosome is inactive in each cell • An extreme example of DNA packing in interphase cells is X chromosome inactivation EARLY EMBRYO TWO CELL POPULATIONSIN ADULT Cell divisionandX chromosomeinactivation Orange fur Active X X chromosomes Inactive X Inactive X Allele fororange fur Black fur Active X Allele forblack fur

  22. Chromosome DNA unpackingOther changes to DNA GENE TRANSCRIPTION GENE Exon RNA transcript Intron Addition of cap and tail Splicing Tail Cap mRNA in nucleus NUCLEUS Flowthroughnuclear envelope mRNA in cytoplasm CYTOPLASM Breakdown of mRNA Translation Broken-down mRNA Polypeptide Cleavage/modification/activation ACTIVE PROTEIN Breakdownof protein Broken-down protein

  23. The Control of Gene Expression

  24. Eye Antenna • Mutant fruit flies show the relationship between gene expression and development • Some mutants have legs where antennae should be Head of a normal fruit fly Leg Head of a developmental mutant

  25. EGG CELL WITHIN OVARIAN FOLLICLE Egg cell Egg protein signaling follicle cells 1 Follicle cells Gene expression in follicle cells • Development of head-tail polarity in fruit fly Follicle cell protein signaling egg cell 2 Localization of “head” mRNA 3 “Head” mRNA

  26. FERTILIZATION AND MITOSIS ZYGOTE Translation of “head” mRNA EMBRYO Gradient of regulatory protein 4 Gene expression Gradient of certain other proteins 5 Gene expression Body segments 6

  27. EMBRYO Body segments 6 LARVA Gene expression ADULT FLY 7 Head end Tail end

  28. SIGNALING CELL Signal molecule 1 Plasma membrane Receptor protein 2 TARGET CELL A signal-transduction pathway that turns on a gene (1) The signaling cell secretes the signal molecule (2) The signal molecule binds to a receptor protein in the target cell’s plasma membrane

  29. SIGNALING CELL Signal molecule 1 Plasma membrane Receptor protein 2 (3) Binding activates the first relay protein, which then activates the next relay protein, etc. 3 TARGET CELL Relay proteins 4 Transcription factor (activated) (4) The last relay protein activates a transcription factor

  30. SIGNALING CELL Signal molecule 1 Plasma membrane Receptor protein 2 (5) The transcription factor triggers transcription of a specific gene 3 TARGET CELL Relay proteins 4 Transcription factor (activated) (6) Translation of the mRNA produces a protein NUCLEUS DNA 5 Transcription mRNA New protein 6 Translation

  31. Perbanyakan sel (kloning) dapat dilakukan dengan transformasi inti sel somatik • Plasmid adalah protein ekstra-kromosomal yang dapat bereplikasi dan dapat ditemukan pada sel hidup • Transkripsi untuk menghasilkan protein terjadi di sitoplasma sel • Gen yang terdapat dibagian ekson dapat diterjemahkan dalam proses transkripsi • Pengaturan gen ditentukan oleh interaksi hubungan sel ke sel • Stem sel dewasa dapat di kultur dan mengalami diferensiasi • B • Gen merupakan materi genetik yang dapat diturunkan pada keturunannya • Plasmid adalah bakteri ekstra-kromosomal yang dapat bereplikasi • Gen yang terdapat dibagian intron dapat diterjemahkan dalam proses transkripsi • Urutan sintesis protein dimulai dari replikasi DNA, transkripsi, dan translasi • Ekspresi gen diaktifkan oleh adanya perubahan lingkungan • Transplantasi inti sel dewasa pada sel telur, maka sel telur dapat berkembang menjadi embrio A

  32. KEY A 1. B 2. S (DNA) 3. S (akson) 4. B 5. B 6.B B 1. S (transplantasi) 2. S (DNA) 3. S (inti) 4. B 5. B 6.B

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