Pacific Northwest Forested Wetland Literature Survey

1. Pacific Northwest Forested Wetland Literature Survey Cooke Scientific Services, Inc. Seattle, Washington Cookescientific.com

2. Funding and Review Organizations • Cooperative Monitoring Evaluation and Research Committee (CMER) Supplied grant • Wetland Scientific Advisory Group (WETSAG) Project oversight • Department of Natural Resources Grant administrator

3. Timber Management Practices PNW - Trends • Forested wetlands may be harvested similarly to upland areas. • No restrictions to tree removal in non-bog forested wetlands. • WA Forest Practices Act (1990) emphasizes reducing impacts to hydrology and soils in forested wetlands but does not impose restrictions. • Common timber management impacts: • Removal of nutrients • Reduction of soil productivity • Increased soil temperature • Hydrologic changes • Changes in water yield and stream flow patterns • Reduction of available wildlife habitat

4. Timber Management in PNW • Even Aged Management (Clear-cutting) • Is the dominant harvest method in W. Washington and Oregon • Results in little or no difference in tree age within a stand • Alters forest community and habitat • Shortens growth cycle • Decreases the presence or absence of snags • Uneven Aged Management (Selective Cutting) • Results in 3 or more tree ages within a stand • Has no associated rotation age • Results in a multilevel forest of different sized trees • Provides habitat for various species throughout their life cycle • Provides stand-scale wildlife habitat with more spatial homogeneity

5. PNW Forested Wetland Characterization • Classify by Wetland Type (montane, riverine) • Classify by Soils (organic, mineral) • Classify by VegetationCommunity Associations • Organic • Bog • Mineral • Classify by Hydrologic Regime • Classify Wildlife Associations

6. Classification of Forested Wetlands in Washington and Oregon (Johnson and O’Neil 2001) • Montane Coniferous-Wetlands • Westside Riparian-Wetlands • Eastside Riparian-Wetlands

7. Montane Coniferous Wetlands (Washington and Oregon) • Steep slopes • Mountains • Flat valley bottoms • 2,000-9,500 feet msl • PFO or floodplains with snow pack • Annual precipitation 35 to 200 inches • Found adjacent to streams and herbaceous wetlands or as small patches within a matrix of upland mixed conifer forest (Johnson O’Neil 2001).

8. 100-9,500 msl Along streams and rivers Within 100-200 feet of stream corridor or water source Primary hydrologic input overbank flow Photo Source: Rosgen 1996 Eastside Riparian Forested Wetlands

9. Flat, gently sloping, or steep terrain Common below 3,000 feet msl but found as high as 5,500 msl. Primary hydrologic input overbank flow, or perennial flowing water Photo Source: Rosgen 1996 Westside Riparian Forested Wetlands

10. PNW Forested Wetland Community Types (Kunze 1994) • Pinus contorta/Ledum groenlandicum/Sphagnum spp. • Pinus monticola/Ledum groenlandicum/Sphagnum spp. • Tsuga heterophylla/Ledum groenlandicum/Sphagnum spp. • Tsuga heterophylla/Sphagnum spp.

11. PNW Forested Bog Community Types (Kunze 1994) • Pinus contorta/Ledum groenlandicum/Sphagnum spp. • Pinus contorta-Thuja plicata/ Myrica gale/Sphagnum spp. • Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla/Gaultheria shallon/Lysichiton americanum/Sphagnum spp. • Tsuga heterophylla/Ledum groenlandicum/Sphagnum spp.

12. Southern PNW (Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, and southern British Columbia) Colonized by shrubs, herbs, and sparse tree stands Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) Western white pine (Pinus monticola) Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) Northern PNW (northern British Columbia and Alaska) Colonized by stunted tree stands Black spruce (Picea mariana) Tamarack (Larix laricina) Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) Mountain hemlock (Tsuga maertensiana) Vegetation Communities Associated with Organic Soils

13. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) Black cottonwood (Populus balsmifera) Red alder (Alnus rubra) Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia) Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) Vegetation Associated with Mineral Soils Southern PNW

14. Black spruce (Picea marina) Tamarack (Larix laricina) Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) White spruce (Picea glauca) White/Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanii) Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) Quaking aspen (Populus remuloides) Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) Alaska Paper birch (Betulaneoalasana) Vegetation Communities Associated with Mineral Soils Northern PNW

15. PNW Forested Wetland Soils Organic Soils • Develop under prolonged saturated conditions • Histosols (peat, muck, or mucky peat) • Gelisols (permafrost or gelic materials 1m bgs) • Organic carbon content of 12 to 18% or more organic carbon • Limited to depressions and alluvial fans in southern PNW (range from 0.5 to 250 ha in size) • Large expanses on flat or sloping terrain in NE British Columbia and Central/SE Alaska (range from 5 to 800 ha in size) • Mineral Soils • Majority of forested wetlands associated with mineral soils (southern PNW) • Alluvial floodplain, mountainside, hillside seeps, depressions • Fine grain clay loam/silty clay loam/gravelly sandy loam, often with a layer of decomposed organic material • Support more diverse forested community

16. Hydrologic Characteristics Not much is known! • Information on coastal forested water balances is primarily from British Columbia • Undisturbed watershed rainfall data is available for the Cascade Mountains in Oregon • The hydrology of small forest streams has been intensively studied in western Oregon. • Alaskan water balances indicate that rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration and that permafrost impedes drainage, so most of the state would be considered wetland. Recharge and discharge functions of wetlands near Juneau have been examined

17. Matthew G. Hunter PNW Forested Wetland Wildlife Overall: Little research has been conducted on characterization of wildlife (amphibians, birds, mammals, fish) habitat associations in PNW forested wetlands. • Forested wetlands often provide unique habitat features required by many wildlife species: • Large diameter trees • Complexity Vegetation • Snags • Organic litter • Downed wood • Food • Cover

18. Overview: No studies in the PNW have specifically investigated amphibian association with forested wetlands. Forest and Fish designated species: Tailed Frog (2 species) Rocky mountain tailed frog Pacific tailed frog Seep or Torrent Salamander (3 species) Cascade torrent salamander Columbia torrent salamander Olympic torrent salamander Van Dyke’s Salamander Dunn’s Salamander W. P. Leonard Amphibians of PNW Forested Wetlands H. Welsh W. P. Leonard W. P. Leonard W. P. Leonard Matthew G. Hunter

19. Overview: No studies in the PNW have specifically investigated avian communities associated with forested wetlands. 367 species found in OR and WA 72% use freshwater riparian and wetland habitats (all classes) 77% of all inland birds breed in riparian and wetland environments 103 species closely associated 89 species generally associated Bird presence is strongly associated with habitat features Birds of PNW Forested Wetlands

20. Preferred Habitat Features for Birds Preferred Habitat Features*: • Large dominant trees • Mixed tree species composition • Multi-layered canopy • Irregular crown structure • Patches of dense foliage • Large standing dead wood • Abundant woody debris on forest floor • *inferred from uplands Photo Source: Knopf 1995

21. PNW contains 156 species of mammals Greater than 50 species breed and feed in Montane Coniferous Wetlands Greater than 60 species breed and feed in Western Riparian Wetlands 70 species breed and feed in eastern Riparian Wetlands Mammals of PNW Forested Wetlands

22. There is little information on characterizing the life history of most riparian and forested wetland habitat obligate mammals Mammals use riparian and wetland sites for: Breeding Feeding Cover Aquatic habitat features most important in arid environments Mammals of PNW Forested Wetlands

23. 5 species of Pacific salmon and 3 species of anadromous trout utilize streams and rivers in PNW Little is known about about salmonids’ relationships with forested wetlands Fish Associated with PNW Forested Wetlands

24. Overall: Forest management effects on PNW forested wetland function is virtually unresearched. Categories: Vegetation Soil Hydrology Wildlife Effects of Forest Management on PNW Forested Wetlands

25. Effects of Forest Management on Vegetation Communities • Change in vegetation community • Reduces: • Species richness • Genetic variability • Functional diversity • Structural diversity

26. Effects of Forest Management on Soil Characteristics Include: • Soil Compaction • Disruption of Forest Duff • Erosion • Alteration to Organic Soils • Frozen Soils

27. Increases in bulk density Increases in erosion Increases in competition with weedy species Decreases in air-filled porosity Decreases in infiltration rates Decrease in hydrologic conductivity Reduction in tree regeneration Changes in landscape hydrology Higher soil compaction when soil is saturated McNabb et al. (2001) researched affects of logging traffic on soil and soil wetness on porosity and bulk density Colin and van den Driessche (1996) Laboratory study of soil compaction and lodgepole pine, Douglas fir and white spruce reduced uptake of nutrients and metals Bulmer (1998) Remediation treatments to improve stripped, compacted soils associated with logging: tillage mulches revegetation micobes Soil Compaction Associated with Harvest Include:

28. Erosion Loss of topsoil that is redeposited downslope, resulting in areas of increased productivity and also exposed subsoil with lower productivity Most erosion immediately following disturbance All the above is related to soil types and degree of disturbance Disruption of forest duff that is an important rooting medium or mulch layer Harvest Activities that reduce, spread, or mix duff layer Decreases in soil physical, chemical, and biological processes, and reduces soil productivity and stability Impacts to tree regeneration Establishment of less-desirable pioneering species (red alder, paper birch, black cottonwood, balsam cottonwood) Disruption of soil macropores by moving organic matter, clays, and sequioxides, reducing rainwater infiltration and soil aggregation Soil Compaction Associated with Harvest Include cont…..

29. Harvest can change surface or near surface hydrology and runoff or drainage patterns Drainage can decompose and oxidize organic soil causing subsidence of soil surface and increased nutrient load in runoff Increases in water tables may alter PFO vegetation, converting it to a shrub or herbaceous -dominated wetland. Loss of phosphorus and potassium Alteration to Organic Soils • Organic soils provide a wet but partially-aerated surface layer • Ruts disrupt horizontal and vertical flow of water through surface layer • Summer harvesting can cause deep water-filled ruts • Winter harvesting with rubber tires reduced ruts and disruption of duff/vegetation

30. Effects of Forest Management on Frozen Soils • Frost is found from the ground surface to 15-60 cm bgs in wetland soil • Winter logging results in less environmental damage to soil layers and microtopography • Caution: • Early winter logging or heavy snow cover can minimize depth of freezing and leave soil fragile • Vegetation removal may thaw permafrost and result in soil subsidence, cryoturbation, or flooding

31. Effects of Forest Management on Hydrology There is Little or no peer reviewed research on forested wetland hydrology or FM effects. • Hydrology changes are related to: • Vegetation removal (decreased transpiration) • Rutting • Soil compaction • LWD removal • Studies of pre/post harvest hydrology are needed

32. Effects of Forest Management on Forested Wetland Wildlife Habitat • Birds • Amphibians • Mammals • Fish Photo Source: Neiring 1985

33. Little research on TM effects on Forested Wetland Birds Effects of harvest are varied and depend on: Species characteristics Preharvest vegetation Type of harvest intensity Timing Successional phase Birds requiring late successional characteristics may be displaced following TM TM may decrease: Bird density Bird diversity Nesting substrate Simplify vegetation structure TM may increase: Habitat fragmentation Nest predation Effects of Timber Management on Birds

34. Selective harvest may benefit avian communities when: Stands are allowed to mature Coarse woody debris accumulates Habitat components are replaced Effects of Timber Management on Birds Photo Source: Niering 1985

35. There has beenLittle research on TM effects on forested wetland mammals Most research studies riparian zones Effects of harvest are varied and depend on: Species characteristics Preharvest vegetation Type of harvest intensity Timing Successional phase Mammals adapted to forested wetlands may be displaced following TM TM may decrease: Mammal density Mammal diversity Simplify vegetation structure TM may increase: Habitat fragmentation Effects of Timber Management on Forested Wetland Mammals • Photo Source: Niering 1985

36. Little research on TM effects on Forested Wetland- associated amphibians TM influence appears to vary with harvest type and species affected TM can displace amphibians by disrupting life cycle requirements through: Sedimentation of egg sites Increased water temperature Soil compaction Hydrologic changes In upland sites: Control sites had 3.5 times the amphibians as clear-cut sites Species richness has shown high variability Thought to reflect amphibians, close association with habitat requirements like CWD and structural components Amphibians may benefit from alternative timber management practices: Retaining CWD Litter depth Large trees Canopy closure Soil moisture Effects of Timber Management on Amphibians

37. There has been little research done on TM effects on forested wetland associated fish In riparian communities TM affects fish by: Increasing water temperature Siltation Altering prey species composition Decreasing large woody debris Decreasing LWD inputs Pess et al. (2002) studied distribution of salmon and land use patterns in PNW Significant correlation between land use and salmon abundance Wetlands had consistent positive correlations to spawner abundance Effects of Timber Management on Fish

38. Conclusions: Little information is published on PNW forested wetland characterization and wildlife associations Little research has been published regarding Timber Management’s effect on PNW forested wetland hydrology, vegetation changes, soils, and wildlife. Most literature discussed is based on upland communities, riparian communities, or forested wetlands in other regions. PNW Forested Wetland Research Needs: Characterize PNW forested wetland hydrology, soils, and wildlife associations Investigate how different TM practices effect vegetation change, hydrology, soils and wildlife associations in the PNW. Conclusions and Future Research

39. Products of this research include: Annotated Bibliography (701 references) Synthesis paper (summary of current knowledge) Slide show All can be found (by June?) as PDF files at: Cookescientific.com Published by: Washington State Department of Natural Resources How to Find the References?