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1. Consequences of Stigma
2. Young, Nussbaum, & Monin, 2007
32 students
completed online survey about health behaviors
were informed of risk for Liscus Acidophilus (Tuners Disease)
read information about disease, modeled after influenza
3. Liscus Acidophilus (commonly called Tuners Disease) is a contagious respiratory disease. The disease is transmitted through bacterial contact, and can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. The best way to prevent Tuners Disease is by getting a vaccination each year. Every year in the United States, on average 5% to 20% of the population gets Tuners Disease; more than 200,000 people are hospitalized from complications, and; about 36,000 people die from Tuners Disease. Some people, such as older people, young children, and people with certain health conditions, are at high risk for serious complications.
4. Liscus Acidophilus (commonly called Tuners Disease) is a contagious respiratory disease. The disease, frequently transmitted sexually, can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. The best way to prevent Tuners Disease is by getting a vaccination each year. Every year in the United States, on average 5% to 20% of the population gets Tuners Disease; more than 200,000 people are hospitalized from complications, and; about 36,000 people die from Tuners Disease. Some people, such as older people, young children, and people with certain health conditions, are at high risk for serious complications.
5. Young, et al., 2007
32 students
completed online survey about health behaviors, then debriefed
after debriefing, were informed of risk for Liscus Acidophilus (Tuners Disease)
read information about disease, modeled after influenza
Control group: disease is transmitted through bacterial contact
Sex risk group: disease is frequently transmitted sexually
Participants indicated likelihood of getting tested.
7. Young, et al., 2007
Researchers manipulated whether disease was transmissible through unprotected sex.
113 students judged likelihood of a target whod contracted the disease engaging in immoral behaviors.
Result: targets with sexually-transmissible disease seen as more immoral.
Researchers manipulated whether disease was transmissible through unprotected sex.
112 students considered how likely they would be to tell other people that they had contracted the disease.
Result: participants with sexually-transmissible disease were less likely to tell others that they had contracted it.
8. Conclusions The stigma attached to sexually transmissible disease
Confers perceptions of immorality
Heightens fears of appearing immoral
Reduced likelihood of getting tested for the disease
With potentially dire health consequences.
9. But what is stigma? Plous:
a mark of inferiority or shame. Stigmatized groups are usually looked down upon or avoided.
Stigma is a mark that violates a norm.
Whitley & Kite:
stigmatized groups violate the norms established by the dominant group
and, as such, are marked by the resulting social stigma.
So stigma is also the negative value attached to a mark, due to its violation of a norm.
10. st??ľa Etymology
Greek: scar left by a hot iron, i.e., a brand
Used to identify criminals, slaves, or traitors as blemished or morally polluted persons to be avoided or shunned, particularly in public places
Plural: stigmata
11. Dimensions of stigma(Jones, Farina, Hastorf, Markus, Miller, & Scott, 1984) Course
Concealability
Aesthetic qualities
Origin
Peril
12. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) Course
Also stability
the duration of the stigma
Brief (unstable)
Acne
Permanent (stable)
Facial scarring
More stable stigmas are usually more negative.
13. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 2. Concealability
The ability to hide or control the stigma
Concealable:
Homosexuality
Depression
Unconcealable
Skin color
Gender
Age
Implications for peoples ability to manage negative reactions to their stigma
However, concealability can have negative consequences. E.g., failure to seek treatment for mental illness.
14. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 3. Aesthetic qualities
Unattractiveness
Acne
Disfigurements and deformity (scarring, missing limbs, etc.)
Facial symmetry
Subject to cultural norms
Body shape
Hair, skin, and eye color
Generally, less attractive individuals are more stigmatized.
15. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 4. Origin
Onset
also control over onset, i.e., culpability (can an internal or external attribution be made for the stigma?)
Less controllable stigmas provoke more pity
More controllable stigmas provoke more anger
Origin can be ambiguous:
Obesity
Homosexuality
Alcohol addiction
Criminality
16. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 5. Peril
Perceived danger
to physical safety
to health
to moral values
to property, resources, and economic well-being
May not be correlated with actual danger
Mental illness and violent crime
AIDS and contagiousness
More perilous stigmas are usually more negative.
17. But what does it mean to be stigmatized? Consequences of Stigma
Stereotyping
Prejudice
Discrimination
But stigma can have consequences beyond the reactions it elicits in perceivers.
Many consequences can arise from anticipated reactions.
E.g., consequences for task performance.
18. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Studies 1 & 2:
Black and White students answered difficult items from the GRE.
Half of Ps told test diagnosed intellectual ability
Half of Ps told test was just a laboratory problem-solving task
19. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Results:
20. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Study 3:
Same procedure as studies 1 & 2
Participants also completed word fragments that could be completed with words relating to:
Black stereotypes
Self-doubt
21. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Race related word fragments:
_ _ C E (RACE)
L A _ _ (LAZY)
_ _ A C K (BLACK)
_ _ O R (POOR)
C L _ S _ (CLASS)
B R _ _ _ _ _ (BROTHER)
_ _ _ T E (WHITE)
M I _ _ _ _ _ (MINORITY)
W E L _ _ _ _ (WELFARE)
C O _ _ _ (COLOR)
TO _ _ _ (TOKEN)
22. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Self-doubt related word fragments:
L O _ _ _ (LOSER)
D U _ _ (DUMB)
S H A _ _ (SHAME)
_ _ _ E R I O R (INFERIOR)
F L _ _ _ (FLUNK)
_ A R D (HARD)
W _ _ K (WEAK)
23. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Study 3:
Same procedure as studies 1 & 2
Participants also completed word fragments that could be completed with words relating to:
Black stereotypes
Self-doubt
Participants also rated their preferences for a variety of activities (some of which were black-associated, e.g., jazz, basketball).
24. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Results:
Blacks taking the diagnostic test were more likely to demonstrate activation of black stereotypes and self-doubt in word completions.
and also distanced themselves from stereotypically black activities.
25. Steele & Aronson, 1995
Why?
Blacks are aware of the stereotype that their group is intellectually inferior. (The threat is in the air.)
Their awareness of the stereotype is activated by the situation (the diagnostic test).
The situation poses the threat of confirming that stereotype through poor performance.
Preoccupation with this stereotype threat interferes with their actual task performance.
26. What about otherperformance domains? E.g., sports.
Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999
40 black and 40 white students played mini-golf
Some told the task tested natural ability
Some told the task tested the ability to think strategically
27. Stone et al., 1999
Results:
28. Stereotype Threat Does stereotype threat (and lift?) occur for other stigmatized groups?
Asians
Women
Could positive stereotypes result in stereotype lift?
Asians stereotyped as having good quantitative skills
Women stereotyped as having poor quantitative skills
29. Stereotype Threat For example
30. Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady (1999).
46 Asian-American female students
Completed a test consisting of 12 math questions from the Univesity of Waterloos Canadian Math Competition
Researchers made identity salient before the test:
Race-salient condition: asked questions about known languages and family history in America
Gender-salient condition: asked questions about living in a co-ed dorm
Control condition
31. Shih et al. (1999)
Results:
32. Stereotype Threat So, awareness of stereotypes can
affect performance in a number of domains:
Verbal ability
Quantitative ability
Athletic ability
affect performance by members of a number of groups:
Blacks
Asians
Whites
Females
And can depress, as well as lift, task performance.
33. Stereotype Threat General features of stereotype threat:
1. Situational (not personal)
Stereotype threat arises from situational factors making the stereotype salient
The person need not believe in the stereotype, or that it applies to them.
2. Not group-specific
Anyone, from any group, can be affected
even if the group is not generally stigmatized
particularly if the performance domain or group membership are central to their identities.
3. Stereotype-dependent (not identity-dependent)
Stereotypes (and their relevant performance domains) vary from group to group.
34. Stereotype threat Can stereotype threat be reduced?
Reduce perceived diagnosticity of tests
Reduce perceived difficulty of tests
ST effects strongest for more difficult tasks
Provide role models
Women perform better on a math test after reading about successful women.
35. Some types of situations evoke stereotype threat, leading people to anticipate confirming a negative stereotype.
Are some types of people more likely to anticipate being stigmatized?
Stigma consciousness the extent to which people expect to be stereotyped
36. Pinel, 2002
59 male and 59 female participants
All female Ps had completed a Stigma Consciousness Questionnaire
Males and females were paired into opposite-sex dyads to participate in a mock hiring decision
Females received information about male partner:
Sexist
Non-sexist
Participants shared their impressions of each other in an interaction.
Finally, participants evaluated essays written by each other.
37. Pinel, 2002
Results:
38. Does stigma also have negative consequences for self-esteem? Why might it?
Reflected appraisals
The looking-glass self (Cooley, 1956)
Self-fulfilling prophecies
Occur when someone acts on an initially false in a way that causes those beliefs to become true.
Efficacy-based self-esteem
Self-esteem earned through successful action
So we might reasonably conclude that stigmatized groups have low self-esteem.
39. Stigma & Self-esteem However, data is mixed at best.
Crocker & Major, 1989:
Blacks have higher self-esteem than other ethnic groups, Whites included
Women do not have lower self-esteem than men
People with unattractive marks (e.g., obesity, facial disfigurement) do not have lowered self-esteem
People who are developmentally disabled to not have lowered self-esteem.
40. Stigma & Self-esteem Why dont these stigmatized groups have low self-esteem?
Self-protective properties of stigma (Crocker & Major, 1989):
Attributing negative feedback to group membership
Ingroup comparisons
Selectivity of values
41. Can stigmatization have consequences for the stigmatizer?
Evidence suggests that, for people prejudiced toward an outgroup, interaction with members of that group may impair executive function.
Executive function the ability to regulate behavior by overriding automatic impulses.
42. Consequences for the stigmatizer Like a computer processor, the executive function has a limited capacity.
Prejudiced people, when interacting with an outgroup, must override more automatic impulses, taxing their executive function.
This taxing of their executive function may impair their ability to self-regulate later.
43. Richeson & Shelton, 2003
50 white students
Completed the IAT
Interacted with a Black or White confederate
Completed a Stroop task
44. Richeson & Shelton, 2003
Stroop task (easy):
RED BLUE
BLUE RED
GREEN GREEN
GREEN RED
BLUE BLUE
RED GREEN
BLUE RED
45. Richeson & Shelton, 2003
Stroop task (hard):
RED RED
BLUE BLUE
RED GREEN
BLUE RED
BLUE GREEN
GREEN BLUE
RED GREEN
46. Richeson & Shelton, 2003
50 white students
Completed the IAT
Interacted with a Black or White confederate
Completed a Stroop task
47. Richeson & Shelton, 2003
Results:
48. Can stigma have consequences for the stigmatized persons associates? Do you know someone (either friend or family) who is
Black
Middle Eastern
Overweight
Homosexual/queer
A feminist
In a fraternity/sorority
An evangelical Christian
Disabled
Alcoholic
49. Neuberg, Smith, Hoffman, & Russell, 1994
104 male students
Viewed an interaction between two male friends (targets 1 and 2)
Target 2 shared information about a romantic partner who was
Same-sex
Opposite sex
Participants indicated social comfort toward Target 1
50. Neuberg, Smith, Hoffman, & Russell, 1994
Results:
51. Hebl & Mannix, 2003
40 male and female participants
asked to evaluate information about a job candidate, including a résumé and a photo taken at a small social reception
Photos depicted targets seated next to:
Heavy female targets
Average-weight female targets
Participants rated applicants hiring eligibility, professional qualities, and interpersonal skills.
52. Hebl & Mannix, 2003
Results:
53. Stigma by Association Can arise from a variety of stigmas:
Homosexuality
Obesity
etc.
Can arise due to different types of associations:
Roommates
Mere proximity
Can have consequences for:
Social approachability
Hiring prospects