CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. 10 The Money Supply and the Federal Reserve System CHAPTER OUTLINE An Overview of Money What Is Money? Commodity and Fiat Monies Measuring the Supply of Money in the United States The Private Banking System How Banks Create Money A Historical Perspective: Goldsmiths The Modern Banking System The Creation of Money The Money Multiplier The Federal Reserve System Functions of the Federal Reserve Expanded Fed Activities Beginning in 2008 The Federal Reserve Balance Sheet How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply The Required Reserve Ratio The Discount Rate Open Market Operations Excess Reserves and the Supply Curve for Money Looking Ahead

2. An Overview of Money What Is Money? Money is a means of payment, a store of value, and a unit of account. A Means of Payment, or Medium of Exchange barterThe direct exchange of goods and services for other goods and services. medium of exchange, or means of payment What sellers generally accept and buyers generally use to pay for goods and services.

3. An Overview of Money What Is Money? A Store of Value store of valueAn asset that can be used to transport purchasing power from one time period to another. liquidity property of moneyThe property of money that makes it a good medium of exchange as well as a store of value: It is portable and readily accepted and thus easily exchanged for goods. A Unit of Account unit of account A standard unit that provides a consistent way of quoting prices.

4. Which of the following refers to the liquidity property of money? a. The fact that money makes a good medium of exchange. b. The fact that money is portable and comes in convenient denominations. c. The fact that money is readily accepted and thus easily exchanged for goods. d. All of the above.

5. Which of the following refers to the liquidity property of money? a. The fact that money makes a good medium of exchange. b. The fact that money is portable and comes in convenient denominations. c. The fact that money is readily accepted and thus easily exchanged for goods. d. All of the above.

6. An Overview of Money Commodity and Fiat Monies commodity moniesItems used as money that also have intrinsic value in some other use. fiat, or token, moneyItems designated as money that are intrinsically worthless. legal tenderMoney that a government has required to be accepted in settlement of debts. currency debasementThe decrease in the value of money that occurs when its supply is increased rapidly.

7. E C O N O M I C S I N P R A C T I C E Dolphin Teeth as Currency In most countries commodity monies are not used anymore, but the world is a big place and there are exceptions. In the Solomon Islands, dolphin teeth are being used as a means of payment and a store of value. Note that even with a currency like dolphin teeth there is a concern about counterfeit currency, namely fruit-bat teeth, but also tooth decay. Shrinking Dollar Meets Its Match in Dolphin Teeth Wall Street Journal

8. An Overview of Money Measuring the Supply of Money in the United States M1: Transactions Money M1, or transactions moneyMoney that can be directly used for transactions. M1 ≡ currency held outside banks + demand deposits + traveler’s checks + other checkable deposits

9. An Overview of Money Measuring the Supply of Money in the United States M2: Broad Money near moniesClose substitutes for transactions money, such as savings accounts and money market accounts. M2, or broad moneyM1 plus savings accounts, money market accounts, and other near monies. M2 ≡ M1 + savings accounts + money market accounts + other near monies

10. When you transfer $1,000 from your checking account to your savings account, this transaction will: a. Decrease both M1 and M2. b. Decrease M1 and increase M2. c. M1 will remain the same and M2 will increase. d. M2 will remain the same and M1 will decrease.

11. When you transfer $1,000 from your checking account to your savings account, this transaction will: a. Decrease both M1 and M2. b. Decrease M1 and increase M2. c. M1 will remain the same and M2 will increase. d. M2 will remain the same and M1 will decrease.

12. NOW YOU TRY:Discussion Question Which of these are money? a.Currency b.Checks c.Deposits in checking accounts (“demand deposits”) d.Credit cards e.Certificates of deposit (“time deposits”)

13. An Overview of Money Measuring the Supply of Money in the United States Beyond M2 There are no rules for deciding what is and is not money. This poses problems for economists and those in charge of economic policy.

14. An Overview of Money The Private Banking System financial intermediariesBanks and other institutions that act as a link between those who have money to lend and those who want to borrow money. The main types of financial intermediaries are commercial banks, followed by savings and loan associations, life insurance companies, and pension funds.

15. How Banks Create Money The Modern Banking System A Brief Review of Accounting Assets − Liabilities ≡ Net Worth or Assets ≡ Liabilities + Net Worth Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed)The central bank of the United States. reservesThe deposits that a bank has at the Federal Reserve bank plus its cash on hand. required reserve ratioThe percentage of its total deposits that a bank must keep as reserves at the Federal Reserve.

16. How Banks Create Money The Modern Banking System A Brief Review of Accounting  FIGURE 10.1 T-Account for a Typical Bank (millions of dollars) The balance sheet of a bank must always balance, so that the sum of assets (reserves and loans) equals the sum of liabilities (deposits and net worth).

17. On the T-account of a bank: a. Reserves are on the liability side. b. Deposits are an important liability. c. Assets plus net worth equal liabilities. d. Assets are usually greater than liabilities plus net worth.

18. On the T-account of a bank: a. Reserves are on the liability side. b. Deposits are an important liability. c. Assets plus net worth equal liabilities. d. Assets are usually greater than liabilities plus net worth.

19. The money creation Process • 100% reserve banking First Bank’s Balance sheet Money = Currency + Deposits = $1,000

20. Fractional Reserve Banking • Assume reserve-deposit ratio is 20% First Bank’s Balance sheet Money = C + D = $800 + $1,000 = $1,800

21. Second Bank’s Balance sheet • The second bank creates $640 of new money

22. Third Bank’s Balance sheet

23. Let rr denote the reserve-deposit ratio, then the amount of money the original $1,000 creates is

24. A Model of the Money supply • The Monetary Base ‘B’ is the total number of dollars held by the public as currency ‘C’ and the banks as reserves ‘R’. • The reserve – deposit ratio rr is the fraction of deposits that banks hold in reserve. • The currency – deposit ratio cr is the amount of currency C people hold as a fraction of their holdings of demand deposits

25. M = C + D…………1 B = C + R …………2 ………..3 ………..4

26. Example Suppose B = $800 billion rr = 0.1 cr = 0.8 Find 1) the multiplier m 2) the money supply M

27. Assuming there are no leakages out of the banking system, a money multiplier equal to 10 means that: a. The reserve ratio equals 10. b. An additional $10 of reserves create one dollar of deposits. c. Each additional dollar of deposits creates $10 of reserves. d. Each additional dollar of reserves creates $10 of additional deposits.

28. Assuming there are no leakages out of the banking system, a money multiplier equal to 10 means that: a. The reserve ratio equals 10. b. An additional $10 of reserves create one dollar of deposits. c. Each additional dollar of deposits creates $10 of reserves. d. Each additional dollar of reserves creates $10 of additional deposits.

29. The Federal Reserve System  FIGURE 10.4 The Structure of the Federal Reserve System

30. The Federal Reserve System Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)A group composed of the seven members of the Fed’s Board of Governors, the president of the New York Federal Reserve Bank, and four of the other 11 district bank presidents on a rotating basis; it sets goals concerning the money supply and interest rates and directs the operation of the Open Market Desk in New York. Open Market DeskThe office in the New York Federal Reserve Bank from which government securities are bought and sold by the Fed.

31. The Federal Reserve System Functions of the Federal Reserve From a macroeconomic point of view, the Fed’s crucial role is to control the money supply. The Fed also performs several important functions for banks, such as clearing interbank payments, regulating the banking system, and assisting banks in a difficult financial position. The Fed is also responsible for managing exchange rates and the nation’s foreign exchange reserves. It is often involved in intercountry negotiations on international economic issues. lender of last resort One of the functions of the Fed: It provides funds to troubled banks that cannot find any other sources of funds.

32. The Federal Reserve System Expanded Fed Activities Beginning in 2008 When housing prices began to fall in late 2005, the stage was set for a worldwide financial crisis, which essentially began in 2008. There has been much political discussion of whether the Fed should have regulated more in 2003–2005 and whether it should be intervening in the private sector as much as it has been doing. It is certainly the case that the Fed has taken a much more active role in financial markets since 2008.

33. The Federal Reserve System The Federal Reserve Balance Sheet

34. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply • If the Fed wants to increase the supply of money, it creates more reserves, thereby freeing banks to create additional deposits by making more loans. If it wants to decrease the money supply, it reduces reserves. • Three tools are available to the Fed for changing the money supply: • Changing the required reserve ratio. • Changing the discount rate. • Engaging in open market operations.

35. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply The Required Reserve Ratio

36. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply The Required Reserve Ratio Decreases in the required reserve ratio allow banks to have more deposits with the existing volume of reserves. As banks create more deposits by making loans, the supply of money (currency + deposits) increases. The reverse is also true: If the Fed wants to restrict the supply of money, it can raise the required reserve ratio, in which case banks will find that they have insufficient reserves and must therefore reduce their deposits by “calling in” some of their loans. The result is a decrease in the money supply.

37. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply The Discount Rate discount rateThe interest rate that banks pay to the Fed to borrow from it. moral suasionThe pressure that in the past the Fed exerted on member banks to discourage them from borrowing heavily from the Fed.

38. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply Open Market Operations open market operationsThe purchase and sale by the Fed of government securities in the open market; a tool used to expand or contract the amount of reserves in the system and thus the money supply. Two Branches of Government Deal in Government Securities The Treasury Department is responsible for collecting taxes and paying the federal government’s bills. The Fed is not the Treasury. It is a quasi-independent agency authorized by Congress to buy and sell outstanding (preexisting) U.S. government securities on the open market.

39. If the Fed wants to increase the money supply, it will: a. Increase the discount rate. b. Increase the reserve requirement. c. Buy government securities in the open market. d. Print money. e. Sell gold.

40. If the Fed wants to increase the money supply, it will: a. Increase the discount rate. b. Increase the reserve requirement. c. Buy government securities in the open market. d. Print money. e. Sell gold.

41. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply Open Market Operations The Mechanics of Open Market Operations We can sum up the effect of these open market operations this way: ■ An open market purchase of securities by the Fed results in an increase in reserves and an increase in the supply of money by an amount equal to the money multiplier times the change in reserves. ■ An open market sale of securities by the Fed results in a decrease in reserves and a decrease in the supply of money by an amount equal to the money multiplier times the change in reserves.

42. How the Federal Reserve Controls the Money Supply Excess Reserves and the Supply Curve for Money  FIGURE 10.5 The Supply of Money If the Fed’s money supply behavior is not influenced by the interest rate, the money supply curve is a vertical line. Through its three tools, the Fed is assumed to have the money supply be whatever value it wants.

43. Looking Ahead This chapter has discussed only the supply side of the money market. In the next chapter, we turn to the demand side of the money market. We will examine the demand for money and see how the supply of and demand for money determine the equilibrium interest rate.

44. moral suasion near monies Open Market Desk open market operations required reserve ratio reserves run on a bank store of value unit of account 1. M1 ≡ currency held outside banks + demand deposits + traveler’s checks + other checkable deposits 2. M2 ≡ M1 + savings accounts + money market accounts + other near monies 3. Assets ≡ Liabilities + Net Worth 4. Excess reserves ≡ actual reserves − required reserves 5. Money multiplier ≡ R E V I E W T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S barter commodity monies currency debasement discount rate excess reserves Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed) fiat, or token, money financial intermediaries legal tender lender of last resort liquidity property of money M1, or transactions money M2, or broad money medium of exchange, or means of payment money multiplier