Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 Trends Related to Fertility and Fecundity

2. Fertility—actual reproduction • Fecundity ---denotes the ability to reproduce • Fertility rates-are the actual number of children had by a women –can be affected by physical and environmental factors as well as social and cultural factors

3. Setting the Stage: World Population Trends How does fertility affect society today? • Used to believe that Increase in birthrate can result in overpopulations, starvation, drainage of water/food supplies and other resources • Nowadays: birth rates are falling, population aging, resources still running out

4. Developed World/industrialized Countries—industrialized/wealthy countries ex: North America, Europe, Japan, New Zealand, Australia • Falling birth rate in these countries is problematic b/c there are fewer people working to pay for the increasing pension and health care needs of the aging populations (refer back to in-class discussion) • Shift to older population (baby boomers) will slow economic growth (less people working)

5. Developing Countries—all other countries—non-industrialized, less wealthy • half the population is under the age of 15 • Contraceptives becoming more widely available—leading to people having less kids even in the developing world which right now controls 95% of the worlds population growth

6. Trends in Developed and Developing Nations • World at large is at a decline in population • Countries are using immigration and fertility to replace its citizens • Germany, Italy and Sweden—deaths higher than births (what did we say this means?) • In Canada only the Northwest Territories and Nunavut show birth rates above replacement level (# of births required to maintain a stable population)

7. 2 factors that contribute to change in fertility rates: • physical and environmental factors • socio-culture factors

8. Physical and Environmental Factors and Fertility • Couple is considered infertile when it has been trying to conceive for over one year without success Factors: • rapid spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) • Decline in male sperm count –can be linked to developed countries where water/food make contain high levels of estrogen • Women delaying motherhood--careers (trend in society)

9. Fertility and Cultural Norms • Proximate determinants—biological and behavioural factors through which social, economic, and environmental variables affect fertility • Ex: contraceptives Hutterites • High fertility rate • Live in small communities • Follow strict social and religious conduct and control • Women bear avg of 9 children (strict ban on contraceptives) • Marriage occurs in mid 20s • Shorter period of breast-feeding results in intervals of about 2 years

10. Bongaarts and Potter: cultural norms are affected by: • Age of first menstruation, age at marriage, frequency of intercourse, length of breast-feeding, use and effectiveness of contraception, and onset of permanent sterility

11. Links between breast-feeding and Fecundity • In many countries mothers and their babies from the moment they are born are expected to be autonomous (sleep in their own crib, play alone, beast fed for only a few months) • Mothers only get 6-8 weeks maternity leave at most places(others get up to a year)—when they return to work they can no longer upkeep breast feeding • Breast milk is extremely beneficial for the baby and provides the baby with countless nutrients that are essential at that age, also immunizes against many illnesses and diseases, improves digestions and plays an integral role in the babies growth

12. Breastfeeding and fecundity • When breast feeding is done “on demand”---feeding whenever the baby gets hungry, and no other food supplement is given to the baby, it has a natural contraceptive effect on the woman • Relasesprolactin—a pituitary hormone that regulates the production of progesterone and inhibits ovulation

13. Age of Menarche and Marriage • Menarche—age at which a woman experiences her first menstrual period • 2 other factors that affect fecundity: age of menarche and age upon marriage • Developed countries: women eat diets high in fat, protein and calories, little physical activity, little exposure to elements =lower menarche age • Developing/pre-industrial societies: low calorie diet (plants/roots), fish, little or no dairy products or processed grains, lots of physical activity = higher menarche age How does lifestyle affect the birthrate in a country?

14. Government Intervention in Fertility • Governments can pursue policies to increase populations as well as decrease populations • Russia—politicians are worried about low birth rate---debating whether to ban abortions and impose a childlessness tax as ways to increase population • China– imposed a one-couple, one-child policy –attempt to reduce population growth • Canada– (Quebec) ---launched a program in 1988 to encourage children—provided a cash bonus to couples for each child born (more children= more money= more incentive)

15. Other roles the Gov’t plays… • Funding programs to reduce teen pregnancy • Promoting contraceptives (making them readily available) • Sex education in schools • Strong public health departments • Incentives/bonuses

16. Involuntary and Voluntary Childlessness • Many societies a marriage is seen as incomplete without children • Many cultures—woman is seen as “defected” if she does not want children • Many countries—not being bale to have children is considered reasonable grounds for divorce

17. Involuntary childlessness--when a couple wants to have children but cannot. 2 factors: 1) not having a mate to produce a family with 2) Infertility Results: Emotional devastation • Reproductive treatments can cause additional stress (increased pressure for results, more hope put into the process) Burden of undergoing treatment can be divided into 3 categories: • Physical effects of the treatment (side effects from fertility drugs) • Objective burdens of treatment –expenditure, time/organization • Subjective psychological strain on patients and partners (guilt/blame/hopelessness, loss of control over life, failure, mourning, resentment—for those who are pregnant)

18. Overcoming infertility • Life without children = more disposable income, more freedom, strong bond between partners • Other options: adoption (within/outside country), reproductive technologies • Reproductive technologies---increase couples chances of having a child; expensive, procedures not covered by gov’t • Ex: in vitro fertilization, intrauterine insemination (IUI), In vitro fertilization (IVF), Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID), Surrogate Mothers

19. Voluntary Childlessness • Couples or individuals who freely choose to remain childless Fran Baum’s categories (stereotypes) who are voluntarily childlessness: • Hedonists—preserving standard of living (not willing to invest time or money) • Emotional – no emotional draw • Idealistic – world is unsuitable • Practical – practical reasons ex: genetic problems

20. Impact of Current Birth Patterns in Canada • Increase in jobs available to young workers • Great demand for retirement and nursing homes • Companies providing services such as financial planning and log term investment will experience growth • Change to Canada Pension Plan (CPP) *read up on the impacts on health care*