Learning

1. Learning

2. Learning • Any enduring change in behavior based on experience • Enduring change in behavior • If behavior does not change then learning did not take place • Experience • We encounter some form of a learning event

3. Learning Theory • Experience shapes behavior • Touch a hot stove • Learning is adaptive • Never touch a hot stove again • We can discover the laws of learning through systematic experimentation

4. Classical Conditioning • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) • Anything that stimulates an automatic (reflexive) response • Food • Unconditioned reflex (UCR) • Automatic response • Hunger

5. Classical Conditioning • Conditioned stimulus (CS) • Pair a neutral item with a UCS • McDonald's golden arches (neutral) & french fries (UCS) • The golden arches become a conditioned stimulus (CS) for the french fries

6. Classical Conditioning • Conditioned response (CR) • The UCR (desire for french fries) becomes associated with the CS (golden arches) • Hunger (UCR) leads to a desire to eat at McDonalds (CR)

7. Ivan Pavlov • Ivan Pavlov noticed a peculiar phenomenon while studying the digestive systems of dogs • When presented with food (UCS) a dog would salivate (UCR) • Pavlov decided to ring a bell (neutral stimulus) just before presenting food to a dog • The sound of the bell (CS) quickly led to the dog salivating

8. Classical Conditioning • Pavlov’s discovery, classical conditioning, can account for a great deal of behavior • For example, quickly write down three words to describe a Ferrari sports car • Your responses were the results of classical conditioning

9. Little Albert • Little Albert was a normal, well adjusted, 9 month old • Albert was given objects by John Watson including: • a white lab rat • a white coat • other things that incorporated the color white • Watson tested Albert’s response to a loud noise (UCS) by banging on a steel bar directly behind his head • Albert reacted by jumping, falling forward, and whimpering

10. Little Albert • Two months later Watson selected a white rat, something Albert was use to playing with, as the CS • Now every time Albert reached out to the white rat Watson struck the steel bar creating a loud sound • Albert immediately became afraid of the white rat • Albert also feared anything with the color white such as a white coat, Santa mask, etc

11. Little Albert • Watson moved Albert from the test room to a large lecture hall, Albert reacted the same • Watson waited for a period of time and retested Albert, found the same negative responses • Albert’s mother removed him from the study. Watson never had a chance to de-program Albert

12. Conditioned Responses • Conditioned taste aversions • Nasty tasting cough syrup • Conditioned emotional responses • Your favorite song generates positive emotions • Conditioned immune responses • Chemotherapy

13. Stimulus Generalization • Once you have learned to pair a given CS with a UCS you tend to generalize to stimuli of a similar nature • “The first person I ever met from Greece was a really nice person. You know, the Greeks are nice people!” • The more similar a stimuli is to the original CS the more likely generalization will occur

14. Stimulus Discrimination • Opposite of stimulus generalization • Learn to respond to a restricted range of stimuli • My ex was from California • I know a lot of good people from California, my ex just isn’t one of them

15. Extinction • Occurs when a CR is weakened to the point of being eliminated • The CS occurs without the UCS • A police officer on beat patrol (CS) has repeated friendly encounters with citizens in a high crime area • Citizens gradually learn not to associate the officer with being arrested • Spontaneous Recovery • Tendency for CS to come back, normally a short lived phenomena • Citizen observes an arrest and, temporarily, regains a fear of the police officer

16. Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning • Interstimulus Interval • Time period between CS and UCS. The shorter the better • One’s Learning History • Prior experience with similar CS • Preparedness to Learn • Some CS/UCS easier to learn than others

17. Operant Conditioning • Operant conditioning involves one’s behavior creating a consequence • Operants (behaviors) that we take with the goal of generating a response • Law of effect - Edward Thorndike suggested that the likelihood of a behavior being repeated depends upon the perceived consequence of the behavior

18. Law of Effect • Will a student cheat on an exam? Law of Effect states the student will focus on the probable outcome: • Excellent chance of getting caught - Probably won’t cheat • Little chance of getting caught - More inclined to cheat

19. Classical versus Operant • Classical Conditioning - The environment impacts you • Someone else links food to McDonald’s arches • Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning - You emit behavior to influence the environment • You do something with the expectation of an outcome

20. Reinforcement • Reinforcement involves any consequence that increases the probability that a response will occur • Positive Reinforcement • The consequence of a behavior makes the behavior more likely to happen -I buy my first lottery ticket and win $1000.00 -I buy more lottery tickets

21. Reinforcement • Negative Reinforcement • The termination of an adverse stimulus makes a behavior more likely tohappen. This can be either an escape or avoidance - Escape - I hit the mute button on the TV and the commercial goes silent - Avoid - I alter my route to work in order to avoid a known speed trap

22. Punishment • Punishment is any consequence that decreases the probability of a behavior being repeated • Positive Punishment - Involves a consequence that is not good: • Going to jail for DUI • Negative Punishment - Something good is taken away • You cheat on me and I’ll stop loving you

23. Problems with Punishment • The person being punished isn’t sure what behavior caused the punishment • Why are you yelling at me? • The person being punished learns to fear the punisher. The person doing the punishing, not the behavior, becomes the issue • I’m not misbehaving, my dad is just a mean hateful person • Punishment may not eliminate the rewards for a behavior • Getting drunk and then driving home is more important than maybe going to jail again

24. Problems with Punishment • People tend to punish when they are angry and upset • The behavior being punished is lost in the arguing and emotions • Aggression leads to aggression • Children who are physically beaten tend to become child abusers when they become parents

25. Extinction • Extinction of an operant behavior tends to occur if the expected consequence of a behavior fails to happen on repeated occasions • At first you always returned my calls during the work day. Then you didn’t return my calls. Now I don’t call during your work shifts.

26. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous Reinforcement Schedule • The consequence is the same every time the behavior is emitted • Partial (intermittent) schedules of reinforcement • Behavior is reinforced only part of the time it is emitted • Surprisingly, behaviors that emit partial reinforcement are less likely to become extinct than are behaviors exposed to continuous reinforcement

27. Schedules of Reinforcement • Ratio Schedules • Fixed-ratio schedule • Reinforcement on a set schedule such as every 5th time • Variable-ratio schedules • Reinforcement is unpredictable

28. Intermittent Reinforcement • Discriminate Stimulus • Contingencies are in effect so that reinforcement only produces the desired behavior under certain circumstances • I will cheer loudly at sports stadiums but never raise my voice in museums

29. Society & Operant Conditioning • Operant Conditioning works both ways • The punishment is a negative reinforcer for the parent if the child’s behavior in question ceases. • Increases likelihood similar forms of punishment will be used by the parent in the future • Behavioral economics • Links reinforcement with economics • If I like both Pepsi and Coke, and the price of Pepsi goes up, then I drink more Coke

30. Characteristics of the Learner • Shaping • Involves taking a series of steps to elicit the desired behavior • Often used when teaching a new language • Chaining • Link together a sequence of existing responses in a novel manner • Can be used to improve athletic performance

31. Characteristics of the learner • Individuals differ in their ability to be conditioned • Some of us learn quicker than our classmates • Some of us are more aggressive when confronted with others attempts to condition us while others’ tend to be avoidant

32. Drive Reduction Theory • Drive - An internal state that impels one to act • Reinforcers - Stimulants that reduce drives • Primary Drives - Central to survival • Hunger-Food • Thirst-Water • Secondary Drives - Culturally defined • Money • Frequent flier points from an airline

33. Role of Feelings • A behavior that is followed by a pleasurable feeling is reinforced • A behavior followed by a negative feeling will be less likely to occur • Guilt serves as a negative feeling therefore it may reduce guilt producing behavior

34. Gray’s 3 Behavioral Systems • Behavioral Approach System - Pleasurable emotional states and approach-oriented behaviors • Behavioral Inhibition System - Involves potential dangers and involves anxiety • Fight-Flight System - In the face of terror one will either elect to fight it out or will attempt to run away

35. Social Learning Theory • Referred to as: • Cognitive Theory, Social Learning Theory, Cognitive-Behavioral theory • Suggests that how we construct the environment is as important to learning as actual environmental contingencies • Involves one’s experiences and expectations • For those who grew up in small towns, NYC may seem very threatening

36. Latent Learning • Suggests that learning involves the creation of “cognitive maps” that we can recall at a later time under the right circumstances • Once learned, not forgotten • One will respond to new circumstances with old behaviors

37. Cognitive-Social Theory • Proposes that one’s expectations about the consequences of a behavior render the behavior more or less likely to occur • If I am friendly towards new classmates then they will be friendly towards me • If I ignore those in out groups they will likely ignore me in the future

38. Expectancies • Self-fulfilling prophecies involve expectations of a given outcome leading to behavior that ensures the outcome • John just knows he will fail the final exam • John doesn’t study • Sure enough, John fails the final exam due to his lack of preparation

39. Locus of Control • Generalized expectations on whether (or not) our behavior can bring about a desired outcome • Internal Locus of Control - I believe I can control my own fate • More likely to take action • If I study hard I will get a good grade • External Locus of Control - I can’t control my fate • More likely to be passive • It doesn’t matter whether I study or not, the professor doesn’t give good grades to student athletes

40. Learned Helplessness • An expectancy that one cannot escape adverse events • Simply don’t try • Often linked to depression

41. Observational Learning • Also referred to as vicarious learning • We observe the consequences of others behaviors • What does father do when my older brother comes home after his curfew?

42. Modeling • We tend to model behavior of someone we admire or an authority figure • Role models are those we emulate • Public figures become role models whether they want to be or not