Chapter Thirteen

1. Chapter Thirteen Leadership

2. What is Leadership? • Leadership – A social process through which an individual intentionally exerts influence over others to structure their behaviors and relationships • Effective leadership depends on the outcomes of the work group or those being led • Core of leadership is influence over others which leads us to issues of POWER

3. Power • A resource that provides the potential to influence the attitudes and behaviors of others • French & Raven’s Model – 5 Bases • Legitimate – Bestowed on an individual by the organization, analogous to authority • Reward – Control rewards or outcomes of others • Coercive – Control over punishments and used to get people to do what one wants • Expert – Affiliated with special knowledge or proficiency • Referent – Gained by the respect of others

4. Power • Power is not always a good thing • Sometimes it can corrupt decision making or follower perceptions of a leader’s intent • Referent and expert power not limited to top of the organization

5. Leadership Theories • Much research effort has been devoted to the explanation of effective leadership • Several families of theories have emerged • Trait • Behavior • Contingency • Contemporary

6. Trait Theories (1930s-1940s) • Focus was on identifying the individual characteristics that make people good leaders • Gender, Dominance, Intelligence, Appearance, Physical Energy, Need for Power, and Need for Achievement • Seminal paper by Stogdill (1948) concluded that there weren’t any universal traits predictive of leadership • Traits disappear for a while

7. Traits (cont’d) • Reemergence of interest in traits: • Intelligence, Dominance and Masculine orientation predict leader emergence and leader perceptions • Behavioral flexibility has been more recently identified as a predictor of leader emergence • Big 5 predicting leadership emergence and leader effectiveness. • Conscientiousness, extraversion

8. Behavior Theories (1950s-1960s) • If traits don’t predict well, perhaps what leaders actually do will help us understand them • Lewin – Iowa Studies • Authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire • Subordinates prefer democratic, but there has been no consistent relationship found between style and subordinate behavior (or effectiveness)

9. Behavior Theories • Ohio State Studies – 2 major dimensions of leader behavior (LBDQ) • Initiating Structure (task-oriented) – Define role of subordinates toward achieving goals • Assigning specific tasks, planning ahead for the next job • Consideration (relationship-oriented) – Supportive behaviors that show concern and respect for subordinates • Participative decision making, establishing a favorable rapport

10. Behavior Theories (cont’d) • Not two ends of a continuum – can be high or low on both; most effective leaders probably are high on both • Results are quite mixed, sometimes high IS leaders seem more effective and sometimes high C leaders seem more effective

11. Contingency Theories (1960s-1970s) • Take into account situational and contextual variables • What did we just say about the effectiveness of leader style or behaviors? C or IS? • 2 Theories to talk about: • Fiedler’s Contingency Theory: Effective leadership is a joint function of leader characteristics and situational features • Path-Goal Theory: Leaders are effective to the extent that they use their resources to complement the environment in which their subordinates work

12. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory • Effectiveness depends on the extent to which leader orientation complements situational favorability • First leadership approach to specify how leader characteristics and the situation might interact • Situational Favorability – 3 Dimensions • Leader-Member Relations • Task Structure • Position Power

13. Fiedler (cont’d) • Leader Orientation – Measured by the Least Preferred Coworker Scale • Describe the worst coworker you have ever worked with on bipolar adjectives • If describes the LPC negatively (low on LPC), this is a task-oriented leader; if positively (high on LPC), a person-oriented leader • Inherent in the leader – can’t change it • Matches up situational favorability (Control) with leader orientation (Style) • Very weak support for some of the 8 quadrants • Effect of leader intelligence on success depends on other variables (e.g. stress)

14. Path-Goal Theory • Four kinds of leader behaviors • Directive, Achievement-Oriented, Supportive, and Participative • Research has not found consistent relationships between these behaviors and performance • Critique – methodological problems (poor measures), lack of attention to intermediate variables, and a lack of control for other relevant variables have impeded testing of the theory

15. Situational Moderators Subordinate Characteristics Environment Characteristics e.g., need for achievement e.g., tasks self-esteem authority system Leader Behaviors Directive Achievement-Oriented Subordinate Subordinate satisfaction, expectancies and values effort, and performance Supportive Participative Path-Goal Theory

16. Contemporary Theories • Three theories have received considerable research attention over the past 25 years • Leader-Member Exchange • Implicit Leadership Theory • Transformational Leadership Theory

17. Contemporary Theories • Four common characteristics of new leadership theories: • Explain how leaders can take organizations to new heights • Explain how certain leaders are able to achieve extraordinary levels of motivation, commitment, and dedication • Stress emotionally appealing behaviors such as empowering, developing a vision, and role modeling • Result in increased follower satisfaction and identification with leader values

18. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) • Leadership involves reciprocal interactions between two parties • LMX focuses on relationships that develop and are maintained between subordinates and leaders • Subordinates are either in an in-group or out-group • In-groups have better relationships with leaders based on trust, shared responsibility, and support • Refutes idea of “average leadership style”

19. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) • Quality relationship with boss can have a very positive effect on work experience • Frequency of communication • Both demographic and organizational factors affect the development of LMX • Gender similarity, number of subordinates, employee workload, and available resources • Research suggests that the relationship between leaders and followers significantly influences employee attitudes and organizational outcomes

20. Implicit Leadership Theory • Subordinate perceptions of leader behavior significantly affect the ability to lead • Leadership is the outcome of a perceptual process involving both leaders and subordinates • Prototype/Schema – One’s mental representation of a leader. Impact of gender? • Matters less what a leader does and matters more how leader actions are perceived by subordinates • Follower’s self-concept also affect attitudes & behaviors

21. A Effective Leader Prototype 1. Intelligent 2. Excellent Communication Skills 3. Committed C 4. Self-starter Leader Evaluation Prototype Matching Jared is an effective Process leader B Jared's Behaviors/Traits 1. Intelligent 2. Excellent Communication Skills 3. Committed D Rating Behaviors or Using Global Impressions? Question: Is Jared a self-starter? Reasoning: "Well, he's an effective leader. Therefore, he is a self-starter." Implicit Leadership Theory and Leadership Ratings

22. Transformational Leadership • Leader and subordinate interact so that they are raised to a higher level of motivation and morality than they would otherwise achieve (Bass, 1985) • Transactional Leadership – Based on contingent reinforcement such that the relationship between a leader and follower is based on exchanges • Follower rewarded for meeting leader expectations

23. Transformational Leaders • Transformational leaders provide: • Idealized Influence (Charisma) • Inspirational Motivation • Intellectual Stimulation • Individualized Consideration • They do more than motivate, they inspire • Transformational leadership typically results in greater subordinate motivation, commitment, and performance

24. Transformational Leaders • Even more successful if they exhibit transactional behaviors as well • Must still set expectations and clarify roles • Perceptions of transformational leadership predicted voting behavior in the 1996 U.S. presidential election • Can result in dependence on the leader vs. empowered self-direction • “Dark Side” of leadership? - Conger

25. Gender and Leadership • In 2002, women made up 47% of the labor force • Women have been chronically under-represented in corporate management • Women have more participative and interpersonally-oriented leadership styles than men • Men and women emerge as leaders in contexts that are consistent with their gender roles

26. Leadership Glass Ceiling??

27. Gender and Leadership • Gender congeniality should moderate leadership effectiveness • Women and men leaders do not differ in overall perceptions of effectiveness • Men are perceived as more effective leaders in contexts congenial to men and women more effective in contexts congenial to women • Women at a huge disadvantage because leadership is “masculine-typed” and to be effective, a woman has to be masculine, but that’s inconsistent w/ gender expectation (Hopkins v. Price Waterhouse)

28. Gender and Leadership • Feminine advantage: because women are more inclusive, interpersonally sensitive, and nurturing they should be better leaders. • Female leaders - higher levels of transformational and transactional contingent reward behaviors vs. male leaders - management by exception • Disagreement over this advantage

29. Culture and Leadership • How different cultures perceive leadership is becoming an increasingly important concern in our global economy • Expected, accepted, and effective leader behavior likely varies by culture • GLOBE Project has identified leadership attributes that are endorsed across and between cultures • Leadership prototypes vary across cultures • Determined – highly prototypical in Western cultures • Intelligent – highly prototypical in Eastern cultures