L2 Identities in the Context of Globalization: Theoretical Models Revisited

1. L2 Identities in the Context of Globalization: Theoretical Models Revisited GAO Yihong Peking University

2. Traditional Views of L2 Learning and Identities • Confined to interaction between identities of “native culture” and “target culture” • Identity changes as result of such interactions

3. Major Theoretical Models of Bilingual Identities • Subtractive bilingualism • Additive bilingualism • Productive bilingualism

4. Subtractive Bilingualism • With subtractive bilingualism, the second or foreign language (L2) is acquired at the expense of the native language (L1), and target culture (C2) assimilation threatens to replace values and life styles of the native culture (C1). Lambert, 1974

5. Additive Bilingualism • With additive bilingualism, the acquisition or learning of L2 and C2 is not at the expense of L1 and C1 identity. L1 and C1 identity are maintained. Lambert, 1974

6. Productive Bilingualism • The command of the target language and that of the native language positively reinforce each other; deeper understanding and appreciation of the target culture goes hand in hand with deeper understanding and appreciation of the native culture. Gao Yihong, 1994, 2001, 2002

7. Productive Orientation • The “productive orientation” of personality refers to a fundamental attitude, a mode of relatedness in all realms of human experience. It covers mental, emotional, and sensory responses to others, to oneself, and to things. Productiveness is man’s ability to use his powers and to realize the potentialities inherent in him. (Fromm, 1948:84)

8. It is the paradox of human existence that man must simultaneously seek for closeness and for independence; for oneness with others and at the same time for the preservation of his uniqueness and particularity. As we have shown, the answer to this paradox – and to the moral problem of man – is productiveness. (ibid. 96-97)

9. Shared Assumptions • Languages and cultures can be clearly defined, with hard boundaries. • Cultures are essentially different from one another. • There is a one-to-one correspondence between language and culture.

10. Limitations • Overgeneralization, danger of essentializing cultures • Focusing on individuals’ competence and psychology; social factors not adequately taken into account

11. Globalization and Postmodernism: New Challenges and Opportunities • Deconstruction of “standard varieties”: World Englishes; EIL (e.g., Kachru, 1992) • Deconstruction of “language” and “speech community”: “Language free communities,”“a continent without languages” (Pennycook, 2007; Makoni & Pennycook, 2007)

12. Constructivist Approaches in Social Sciences • Bourdieu(1977): habitus, field, capital • Lave and Wenger (1991), Wenger (1998): Community of practice • Anderson (1991): Imagined community • Giddens (1984, 1991): duality of structure, self-identity – the self as reflexively understood by the individual in terms of his or her biography

13. Constructivist Views of L2 Learning and Identity • Investment (Norton, 1995) • Imagined community (Norton, 2001) • Imagined global community (Ryan, 2006) • Bicultural identity partly rooted in local culture and partly rooted in global culture, the latter associated with English (Dornyei, Csizer & Nemeth, 2006) • Symbolic competence (Kramsch, 2008) --ability to play with various linguistic codes and with the various spatial and temporal resonances of these codes.

14. Remaining Problems and Debates • Does “native culture” and “target culture” still exist? (Yes they do, to many and in various situations.) • How are cultures defined? Do they have clear-cut boundaries? (Cultures as prototypes rather than sets) • How do power relations between communities influence L2 identity formation and development?

15. Models of Bilingual Identities Revisited • Existing models specify certain TYPES OF RELATIONS between different identities associated with linguistic varieties, which can be maintained and further pursued. • The territory-bound “native (national) culture” and “target (national) culture” with hard boundaries exist in LEARNERS’ PERCEPTION as basis of identity construction, but they are not the ONLY basis, and may not be the MAJOR basis.

16. There is no definite one-to-one correspondence between linguistic variety and group identities. Yet increasingly in the context of globalization, English is associated with a global identity, rather than that of a target nation. • The linguistic varieties involved in identity work is not confined to “language” as narrowly defined; they cover a range of sociolinguistic variation dimensions – dialects, styles, registers, etc. in communicative practice. Discourses, in sum. • Bilingual/multilingual identities are dynamic processes.

17. Subtractive Identity Work: 1-1=1 • One identity associated with a certain linguistic variety is replaced by another identity associated with a different linguistic variety.

18. Additive Identity Work: 1+1=1/2+1/2 • Two (or more) identities associated with different linguistic varieties co-exist in one’s linguistic and identity repertoire, and have respective roles to play in different communicative situations or for different purposes.

19. Productive Identity Work: 1+1>2 • The two linguistic and community identities reinforce each other. Deeper understanding, appreciation, and empathy with one community goes hand in hand with that of the other.

20. Example: Olympic Games Volunteers • Apple for the Venezuela volleyball team • Cheer for the Singapore table tennis team • Interaction between “Chinese” and “world” identities

21. Hybrid Identity Work: 1+1+…1=1 • Elements from different linguistic varieties are mixed to form a new variety, which is associated with a distinct identity.

22. Example: Code-Mixing as a Norm in Pop Songs 陶喆- myanata Anata.mp3 （Moshi moshi？ Moshi moshi？ Nani kore）三更半夜savish的我只听见ojisan骑著单车卖著馒头yohji han desu 你究竟在哪里难道你又是在kurabu唱著nakashi 哟oh 不知道你还爱不爱我我哪里做错请你快告诉我我打不还手我骂不还口只要你说一声"a i shitteru"别说 sayonara

23. hitori de孤苦伶仃的我苦等著anata两年三个月没有消息快要发疯我听到门铃声sumimasen宅急便说他要找的在隔壁oh 我怀疑你已经不爱我想要离开我我求你不要走我为你减肥我为你喝醉请不要说你已不爱我亲爱的anata(anataanata oh , please don't go! Oh, no!)我要你知道我永远爱你如果失去你我就活不下去我们最match 我不会怪你因为有一天你会看见我爬出电视机

24. Example: Student Journal • But it is amazing that not as many students of us call others English names in our life as in the English class. Usually we call others nicknames or adapt our English names to lovely Chinese ones. For example, I call Melody “Mai Mai”（麦麦）or just her Chinese nickname. We call Lily, one of my best friends, “Li Li”（莉莉）. And they sometimes would cal me “Wei Wel An”（薇薇安）or my other Chinese nicknames. (Gao et al., 2008)

25. Differences Between Productive and Hybrid Identity Work • Productive: The original identities are kept as a whole while interacting with each other • Hybrid: Bits/fragments from original identities are assembled to make a new whole.

26. Power and Identity Negotiation • Top-down influence: The power difference between communities, as perceived, influences identity formation. • Bottom-up influence: Learners take the initiative to negotiate their identity of power in a specific community.

27. Conclusion • Traditional models on language learning and identity encounter challenges in the context of globalization and postmodernism • Efforts are made to reframe/expand some major theoretical concepts to meet the challenges • While the core of cultures are still assumed and clear-cut cultural boundaries recognized in the subjective domain of identity formation, complexity, fluidity and dynamism are taken into consideration.

28. Subtractive, additive, and productive bilingualism are expanded to accommodate new forms of identity formation • Hybrid identity is identified as a new form of identity formation • Interplay of top-down and bottom-up processes of identity formation is highlighted

29. Thank you!