Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment

1. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment How Investing In Real Estate Could Actually Lower Your Risk

2. “PORTFOLIO THEORY” (“Mean-Variance Efficiency Theory”) • DEVELOPED IN 1950s (by MARKOWITZ, SHARPE, LINTNER) • (They won Nobel Prize in Economics in 1990 for developing this theory.) • Widely used on Wall Street & among professional investors

3. Statistics Review: “1st Moment” Across Time • measures “central tendency” • “MEAN”, used to measure: • Expected Performance (“ex ante”, usually arithmetic mean: used in portfolio analysis) • Achieved Performance (“ex post”, usually geometric mean)

4. Statistics Review:“2nd Moments” Across Time • Measure characteristics of the deviation around the central tendency. • “STANDARD DEVIATION” (or “volatility”), which measures: • Square root of variance of returns across time. • “Total Risk” (of exposure to asset if investor not diversified) • “COVARIANCE”, which measures “Co-Movement”: • “Systematic Risk” (component of total risk which cannot be “diversified away”) • Covariance with investor’s portfolio measures asset contribution to portfolio total risk. • “CROSS-CORRELATION” (or just “correlation” for short). • Based on contemporaneous covariance between two assets or asset classes. Measures how two assets “move together”: • important for Portfolio Analysis. • “AUTOCORRELATION” (correlation with itself across time), • Reflects the nature of the “Informational Efficiency” in the Asset Market; e.g.: • Zero  “Efficient” Market (prices quickly reflect full information; returns lack predictability)  Like securities markets. • Positive “Sluggish” (inefficient) Market (prices only gradually incorporate new info.)  Like private real estate markets. • Negative “Noisy” Market (excessive short run volatility, price “overreactions”)  Like securities markets (a little bit).

5. “Picture” of 1st and 2nd Moments . . .

6. Historical statistics, annual periodic total returns: stocks, bonds, real estate, 1970-97…

7. Stocks & bonds (+44% correlation):

8. Stocks & real estate (+7% correlation):

9. Bonds & real estate (-34% correlation):

10. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Why do you suppose real estate is negatively correlated with bonds during this period of history?… • [Hint: consider the effect of news about inflation.]

11. WHAT IS PORTFOLIO THEORY?... • Suppose we draw a 2-dimensional space with risk (2nd-moment) on horizontal axis and expected return (1st moment) on vertical axis. • A risk-averse investor might have a utility (preference) surface indicated by contour lines like these (investor is indifferent along a given contour line):

12. P RETURN Q RISK Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • The contour lines are steeply rising as the risk-averse investor wants much more return to compensate for a little more risk.

13. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • For any two portfolios “P" and “Q" such that: • Expected return “P"  expected return “Q“ and (simultaneously): • Risk “P"  risk “Q" • It is said that: • “P” dominates “Q". • And/or: • “Q” is dominated by “P". • Note: this is independent of risk preferences. Both conservative and aggressive investors would agree about this. • In essence, portfolio theory is about how to avoid investing in dominated portfolios.

14. PORTFOLIO THEORY AND DIVERSIFICATION... • “PORTFOLIOS” ARE “COMBINATIONS OF ASSETS”. PORTFOLIO THEORY FOR (or from) YOUR GRANDMOTHER: “DON’T PUT ALL YOUR EGGS IN ONE BASKET!” WHAT MORE THAN THIS CAN WE SAY? . . . (e.g., How many “eggs” should we put in which “baskets”.)

15. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • In other words, • Given your overall investable wealth, portfolio theory tells you how much you should invest in different types of assets. • For example: • What % should you put in real estate? • What % should you put in stocks?

16. Statistics • At the heart of portfolio theory are two basic mathematical facts: • 1) portfolio return is a linear function of the asset weights:

17. Statistics • 2) portfolio risk is a non-linear function of the asset weights such that the portfolio risk is less than a weighted average of the risks of the individual assets.

18. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment  This is the beauty of Diversification. It is at the core of Portfolio Theory. It is perhaps the only place in economics where you get a “free lunch”: in this case, less risk without necessarily reducing your expected return!

19. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE . . . SUPPOSE REAL ESTATE HAS: SUPPOSE STOCKS HAVE: EXPECTED RETURN = 10% EXPECTED RETURN = 15% RISK (STD.DEV) = 10% RISK (STD.DEV) = 15% THEN A PORTFOLIO WITH w SHARE IN REAL ESTATE & (1-w) SHARE IN STOCKS WILL RESULT IN THESE RISK/RETURN COMBINATIONS, DEPENDING ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE REAL ESTATE AND STOCK RETURNS: where: C = Correlation Coefficient between Stocks & Real Estate. (This table was simply computed using the formulas given on the previous page.)

20. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment

21. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment

22. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • In essence, portfolio theory assumes: • Your objective for your overall wealth portfolio is: • Maximize expected future return • Minimize risk in the future return

23. GIVEN THIS BASIC ASSUMPTION, AND THE EFFECT OF DIVERSIFICATION, WE ARRIVE AT THE FIRST MAJOR RESULT OF PORTFOLIO THEORY: To the investor, the risk that matters in an investment is that investment's contribution to the risk in the investor's overall portfolio, not the risk in the investment by itself. This means that covariance (correlation and variance) may be as important as (or more important than) variance (or volatility) in the investment alone. (e.g., if the investor's portfolio is primarily in stocks & bonds, and real estate has a low correlation with stocks & bonds, then the volatility in real estate may not matter much to the investor, because it will not contribute much to the volatility in the investor's portfolio. Indeed, it may allow a reduction in the portfolio’s risk.)

24. QUANTIFYING OPTIMAL PORTFOLIOS: • STEP 1: FINDING THE "EFFICIENT FRONTIER". . . • Suppose in addition to stocks & real estate as in the above example, we can also invest in long-term bonds, with: • Expected return = 8% • Risk (Standard Dev) = 8% • And bonds have correlation +50% with stocks and 0% with real estate.

25. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Investing in any one of the three assets without diversification allows the investor to achieve only (any) one of the three possible risk/return points depicted in the graph below…

26. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Allowing pairwise combinations (as with our previous stocks & real estate example), increases the risk/return possibilities to these…

27. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Finally, if we allow unlimited diversification among all three asset classes, we enable an infinite number of combinations, the “best” (i.e., most “north” and “west”) of which are shown by the outside (enveloping) curve below (indicated by diamonds). This is the “efficient frontier” in this case (of three asset classes).

28. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment

29. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • In portfolio theory the “efficient frontier” consists of all asset combinations (portfolios) which maximize return and minimize risk. • The efficient frontier is as far “north” and “west” as you can possibly get in the risk/return graph. • A portfolio is said to be “efficient” (i.e., represents one point on the efficient frontier) if it has the minimum possible volatility for a given expected return, and/or the maximum expected return for a given level of volatility. • (Terminology note: This is a different definition of "efficiency" than the concept of informational efficiency applied to asset markets and asset prices.)

30. SUMMARY: • Diversification among risky assets allows: • Greater expected return to be obtained for any given risk exposure, &/or; • Less risk to be incurred for any given expected return target. • (This is called getting on the "efficient frontier".)

31. Summary • Portfolio theory allows us to: • Quantify this effect of diversification • Identify the "optimal" (best) mixture of risky assets

32. INTRODUCING A “RISKLESS ASSET” • In a combination of a riskless and a risky asset, both risk and return are weighted averages of risk and return of the two assets. • So the risk/return combinations of a mixture of investment in a riskless asset and a risky asset lie on a straight line, passing through the two points representing the risk/return combinations of the riskless asset and the risky asset.

33. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • In portfolio analysis, the “riskless asset” represents borrowing or lending by the investor… • Borrowing is like “selling short” or holding a negative weight in the riskless asset. Borrowing is “riskless” because you must pay the money back “no matter what”. • Lending is like buying a bond or holding a positive weight in the riskless asset. Lending is “riskless” because you can invest in govt bonds and hold to maturity.

34. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Suppose you combine riskless borrowing or lending with your investment in the risky portfolio of stocks & real estate.

35. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Your overall expected return will be: • rW = vrP + (1-v)rf • And your overall risk will be: • sW = vsP + (1-v)0 = vsP • Where: • v = Weight in risky portfolio • rW, sW = Return, Std.Dev., in overall wealth • rP, sP = Return, Std.Dev., in risky portfolio • rf = Riskfree Interest Rate

36. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • v Need not be constrained to be less than unity. • v CAN BE GREATER THAN 1 ("leverage" , "borrowing"), • v can be less than 1 but positive ("lending", investing in bonds, in addition to investing in the risky portfolio). • Thus, using borrowing or lending, it is possible to obtain any return target or any risk target. The risk/return combinations will lie on the straight line passing through points rf and rp.

37. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE • SUPPOSE: • RISKFREE INTEREST RATE = 5% • STOCK EXPECTED RETURN = 15% • STOCK STD.DEV. = 15% • IF RETURN TARGET = 20%, • BORROW $0.5 • INVEST $1.5 IN STOCKS (v = 1.5). • EXPECTED RETURN WOULD BE: • (1.5)15% + (-0.5)5% = 20% • RISK WOULD BE • (1.5)15% + (-0.5)0% = 22.5%

38. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • IF RETURN TARGET = 10%, • LEND (INVEST IN BONDS) $0.5 • INVEST $0.5 IN STOCKS (v = 0.5). • EXPECTED RETURN WOULD BE: • (0.5)15% + (0.5)5% = 10% • RISK WOULD BE • (0.5)15% + (0.5)0% = 7.5%

39. EXPECTED RETURN

40. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • But no matter what your return target, you can do better by putting your risky money in a diversified portfolio of real estate & stocks . . . • SUPPOSE: • REAL ESTATE EXPECTED RETURN = 10% • REAL ESTATE STD.DEV. = 10% • CORRELATION BETWEEN STOCKS & REAL ESTATE = 25% • THEN 50% R.E. / STOCKS MIXTURE WOULD PROVIDE: • EXPECTED RETURN = 12.5%; • STD.DEV. = 10.0%

41. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • IF RETURN TARGET = 20%, • BORROW $1.0 • INVEST $2.0 IN RISKY MIXED-ASSET PORTFOLIO (v = 2). • EXPECTED RETURN WOULD BE: • (2.0)12.5% + (-1.0)5% = 20% • RISK WOULD BE: • (2.0)10.0% + (-1.0)0% = 20% < 22.5% • IF RETURN TARGET = 10%, • LEND (INVEST IN BONDS) $0.33 • INVEST $0.67 IN RISKY MIXED-ASSET PORTFOLIO (v = 0.67). • EXPECTED RETURN WOULD BE: • (0.67)12.5% + (0.33)5% = 10% • RISK WOULD BE: • (0.67)10.0% + (0.33)0% = 6.7% < 7.5%

42. E[Return] rj j rP P ri i rf Risk(Std.Dev.of Portf) THE "OPTIMAL" RISKY ASSET PORTFOLIO WITH A RISKLESS ASSET

43. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • Thus, the “2-fund theorem” tells us that there is a single particular combination of risky assets (the portfolio “p”) which is "optimal" no matter what the investor's risk preferences or target return. • Thus, all efficient portfolios are combinations of just 2 funds: • Riskless fund (long or short position) + • risky fund "p" (long position). • Hence the name: "2-fund theorem".

44. Modern Portfolio Theory & Real Estate Investment • How do we know which combination of risky assets is the optimal all-risky portfolio “p”? • It is the one that maximizes the slope of the straight line from the riskfree return through “p”. • The slope of this line is given by the ratio: • Portfolio Sharpe measure = (rp - rf) / sp • Maximizing the Sharpe ratio finds the optimal risky asset combination. The Sharpe ratio is also a good intuitive measure of “risk-adjusted return”, as it gives the risk premium per unit of risk (measured by standard Deviation). • Thus, if we assume the existence of a riskless asset, we can use the 2-fund theorem to find the optimal risky asset mixture as that portfolio which has the highest “Sharpe measure” (or “Sharpe ratio”).

45. BACK TO PREVIOUS 2-ASSET NUMERICAL EXAMPLE...

46. 2-FUND THEOREM SUMMARY: • The 2-fund theorem allows an alternative, intuitively appealing definition of the optimal risky portfolio: the one with the maximum Sharpe ratio. • This can help avoid “silly” optimal portfolios that put too little weight in high-return assets just because the investor has a conservative target return. (Or too little weight in low-return assets just because the investor has an aggressive target.) • It also provides a good framework for accommodating the possible use of leverage, or of riskless investing (by holding bonds to maturity), by the investor.