1 / 23

Executive Functioning and Sentence Comprehension

Executive Functioning and Sentence Comprehension. Sarah Key-DeLyria, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Portland State University. Learning Objectives. 1. Define the categories of executive functions. 2. Define specific types of executive function skills within the general categories.

vivian
Download Presentation

Executive Functioning and Sentence Comprehension

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. Executive Functioning and Sentence Comprehension Sarah Key-DeLyria, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Portland State University

  2. Learning Objectives 1. Define the categories of executive functions. 2. Define specific types of executive function skills within the general categories. 3. Name tasks that are thought to test several specific executive functions. 4. Name specific executive function skills that may be used at different points during sentence comprehension.

  3. Executive Functioning: What is it? • A collection of constructs

  4. GOAL FORMULATION1 PLANNING1,4,5,6,7 Executive Function Categories Internally or Externally Generated1; Requires at least Intention1, Motivation1, and Self awareness1,2,3 Sustained attention1,2 Not necessarily a component but required for successful planning Hypothesizing and Hypothesis Testing6 Generate Alternatives4 or Verbal/ Design Fluency5,20 Problem Solving5,8,9 Decision making5 Rule Detection10 Strategizing4 Conceptual Framework1 CARRYING OUT ACTIVITIES1 e.g., Initiate, Switch, Stop Sequence, Maintain, in an Orderly & Integrated Manner UPDATING4,5,7,9,15 SHIFTING & INHIBITION Working Memory5,7,9,15 Modify15 or Update Information4,8,9,15 or Internal representation4 Sequencing4 Manipulate information9 Monitoring of information4 • Terms Referring to Shifting • Selectively attend to one and inhibit* effect of other stimuli2,5,15 • Engage/Disengage appropriately8 • New operation despite negative priming/ interference8 • Mental Flexibility8,16 • Cognitive Flexibility4,5,8,20 • Cognitive Control17 • Inhibitory Control16,18 • Attentional Control16,18 • Attention Shifting17 • Set shifting8,15,16,17 • Switching1,4,5,19 • *Types of Inhibition11 • Motor response Inhibition12 • Cognitive Inhibition12,13 • Suppresses irrelevant information already in working memory • Resistance to Interference13 • Prevents irrelevant information from entering working memory • Unintentional Inhibition8,12 • Can lead to reactive inhibition8 • Inhibition of prepotent response4,8 • Current target requires a ‘no’ response but it required ‘yes’ recently14; Intentional Inhibition8,12 • Reactive Inhibition7,14 • Inhibition of Return (IOR)8,21 • Target in a location that was previously cued; IOR occurs after a brief period of enhancement with the initial cue • Negative Priming8 • Current target where a distractor used to be 1Lezak, 1982 2Stuss & Alexander, 2000 3Spreen & Strauss, 1998 4Salthouse et al., 2003 5Alvarez & Emory, 2006 6Lehto, 1996 7Grossman et al., 2002 8Miyake et al., 2000 9Carpenter, Just, & Reichle, 2000 10Jurado & Rosselli, 2007 11Some consider inhibition to be a possible underlying feature of all EF subcomponents (Miyake et al., 2000); the inhibition types listed are not necessarily mutually exclusive 12Harnishfeger, 1995 13Wilson & Kipp, 1998 14Jonides, Smith, Marshuetz, Koeppe, & Reuter-Lorenz, 1998 15Collette & Van der Linden, 2002 16Mazuka, Jincho, & Oishi, 2009 17Novick et al., 2005 18Cowan, Fristoe, Elliott, Brunner, & Saults, 2006 19Baddeley, 1996 20Flexibility is often used loosely to refer to shifting, switching or even to take many viewpoints, especially in novel contexts3. Spreen and Strauss(1998) separate cognitive flexibility into spontaneous flexibility, synonymous with fluency, and reactive flexibility, defined as shifting. 21Klein, 2000 DUAL TASK or TIME SHARING 4,15,19 Allocate resources between tasks or processes Shifting terms are mostly synonymous but not always used with the same definitions or tasks20. Switching also refers to switching repeatedly in the dual task sense. Conflict resolution17 Shifting due to an internal representation not compatible with current demands EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE1 e.g., Monitor1,4, Self-Correct, Regulate Tempo & Intensity Effective performance is required throughout many of the above processes

  5. Important Subcomponents • Planning • The delineation & identification of alternatives, organization, decision-making, and strategizing in relation to current choices or behaviors • Directed towards to future • Helps to update goals • Involves Strategizing • Involves Hypothesizing

  6. Important Subcomponents • Carrying out activities • Cognitive Control • Coordinate thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals (overarching resource) • Indicates how much “top-down” control to exert • Set shifting • Doing something despite interference, negative priming, distraction (Miyake et al., 2000) • OR inhibit a previous item and activate a new item • OR maybe just activating a new item enough to shift well • Conflict Resolution • Monitors levels of conflict to pass on to ‘control centers’ • Seeks an alternative • Set shifting needs conflict resolution to determine level of control

  7. Important Subcomponents • Carrying out activities • Cognitive Inhibition • Resistance to interference • Inhibition of a prepotent response • Negative priming • Monitoring/ Error detection • Conflict resolution?

  8. Testing Executive Functions

  9. Plus-minus task

  10. How do we comprehend sentences? • Rules, Context, Meaning • But when? • Incrementally! • Theories of sentence processing • Garden Path Model (Frazier, 1987; Frazier & Rayner, 1982) • Multiple Constraints Model (Trueswell, Tanenhaus, & Garnsey, 1994) • “Good Enough” Model (Christianson, Hollingworth, Halliwell, & Ferreira, 2001)

  11. How do we test sentence comprehension? • Informal assessment • Token Test • New! Northwester Assessment of Verbs and Sentences (NAVS)

  12. Executive Function and Sentence Comprehension ARE linked • January et al., 2009 • Novick et al., 2004, 2005 • Prior & Gollan, 2013 • Ye & Zhou 2008, 2009 • Grossman et al., 2002; Waters & Caplan, 1997 (PD) • Novick et al., 2010; Hamilton & Martin, 2005 (VLPFC damage cases) • Sesma et al., 2009 (ADHD) • Christiansen et al., 2010 (Aphasia: Agrammatism) • Hinchliffe et al., 1998 (TBI)

  13. IP Temporarily Ambiguous Sentence Comprehension IP IP ? Conj NP VP VP PP NP V While the man hunted the deer ran into the woods. PP NP VP Conj NP VP IP IP IP Christianson et al., 2001

  14. Ambiguous Sentence Resolution and EFs • Pre-sentence • Planning • Goal setting • Where’s the data? • Initial interpretation • Maintaining the goal • Sequencing • Strategic Planning • Hypothesizing (Novais-Santos et al., 2007) • Cognitive Inhibition of possible alternatives in WM

  15. Ambiguous Sentence Resolution and EFs • Wait, what? (encountering an unexpected ending) • Monitoring/ Error detection • Conflict resolution (Ye & Zhou, 2008) • Cognitive control (Novick et al., 2004, 2005) • Hypothesizing? • Maintaining the goal? • Resolving (maybe) • Set shifting • Maybe not fully inhibiting that first parse • Switching (Novais-Santos et al., 2007) • Negative Priming • Inhibition of a prepotent response

  16. References

  17. Alexander, F. (1946). Individual psychotherapy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 8(2), 110–115. Altmann, G. T. . (1998). Ambiguity in sentence processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2(4), 146–152. Alvarez, J. A., & Emory, E. (2006). Executive function and the frontal lobes: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 16(1), 17–42. doi:10.1007/s11065-006-9002-x Baddeley, A. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford University Press, USA. Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 49(1), 5–28. doi:10.1080/713755608 Baltes, P. B., Cornelius, S. W., Spiro, A., Nesselroade, J. R., & Willis, S. L. (1980). Integration versus differentiation of fluid/crytallized intelligence in old age. Developmental Psychology, 16(6), 625–635. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.16.6.625 Berg, E. A. (1948). A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking. The Journal of General Psychology, 39(1), 15–22. doi:10.1080/00221309.1948.9918159 Biddle, K. R., McCabe, A., & Bliss, L. S. (1996). Narrative skills following traumatic brain injury in children and adults. Journal of Communication Disorders, 29(6), 447–469. doi:10.1016/0021-9924(95)00038-0 Bock, J. K. (1982). Toward a cognitive psychology of syntax: Information processing contributions to sentence formulation. Psychological Review, 89(1), 1–47. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.89.1.1 Body, R., & Parker, M. (2005). Topic repetitiveness after traumatic brain injury: An emergent, jointly managed behaviour. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 19(5), 379–392. doi:10.1080/02699200400027189 Boosman, H., Visser-Meily, J. M. A., Post, M. W. M., Duits, A., & van Heugten, C. M. (2013). Validity of the Barrow Neurological Institute (BNI) Screen for higher cerebral functions in stroke patients with good functional outcome. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 0(0), 1–14. Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108(3), 624–652. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.624 Brooks, J., Fos, L. A., Greve, K. W., & Hammond, J. S. (1999). Assessment of executive function in patients with mild traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 46(1), 159–163. Brown, R. G., & Pluck, G. (2000). Negative symptoms: the “pathology” of motivation and goal-directed behaviour. Trends in Neurosciences, 23(9), 412–417. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01626-X Buré-Reyes, A., Hidalgo-Ruzzante, N., Vilar-López, R., Gontier, J., Sánchez, L., Pérez-García, M., & Puente, A. E. (2013). Neuropsychological test performance of Spanish speakers: Is performance different across different Spanish-speaking subgroups? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 0(0), 1–9. doi:10.1080/13803395.2013.778232 Burgess, P. W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Methodology Of Frontal And Executive Function (pp. 81–116). Psychology Press. Cannizzaro, M. S., & Coelho, C. A. (2002). Treatment of story grammar following traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. Brain Injury, 16(12), 1065–1073. doi:10.1080/02699050210155230 Carpenter, P. A., Just, M. A., & Reichle, E. D. (2000). Working memory and executive function: evidence from neuroimaging. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10(2), 195–199. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00074-X Christianson, K., Hollingworth, A., Halliwell, J. F., & Ferreira, F. (2001). Thematic roles assigned along the garden path linger. Cognitive Psychology, 42(4), 368–407. doi:10.1006/cogp.2001.0752 Chung, C. S. Y., Pollock, A., Campbell, T., Durward, B. R., & Hagen, S. (2013). Cognitive rehabilitation for executive dysfunction in adults with stroke or other adult non-progressive acquired brain damage. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 4, CD008391. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008391.pub2 Cicerone, K., Levin, H., Malec, J., Stuss, D., & Whyte, J. (2006). Cognitive rehabilitation interventions for executive function: Moving from bench to bedside in patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(7), 1212–1222. doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.7.1212 Coelho, C. A. (2007). Management of discourse deficits following traumatic brain injury: progress, caveats, and needs. Seminars in speech and language, 28(2), 122–135. doi:10.1055/s-2007-970570

  18. Coelho, C. A., DeRuyter, F., & Stein, M. (1996). Treatment efficacy: cognitive-communicative disorders resulting from traumatic brain injury in adults. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39(5), S5–17. Coelho, C. A., Grela, B., Corso, M., Gamble, A., & Feinn, R. (2005). Microlinguistic deficits in the narrative discourse of adults with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19(13), 1139–1145. doi:10.1080/02699050500110678 Coelho, C. A., Liles, B. Z., & Duffy, R. J. (1995). Impairments of discourse abilities and executive functions in traumatically brain-injured adults. Brain Injury, 9(5), 471–477. Collette, F., & Van der Linden, M. (2002). Brain imaging of the central executive component of working memory. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 26(2), 105–125. Cowan, N., Fristoe, N. M., Elliott, E. M., Brunner, R. P., & Saults, J. S. (2006). Scope of attention, control of attention, and intelligence in children and adults. Memory & Cognition, 34(8), 1754–1768. doi:10.3758/BF03195936 Culbertson, W. C., & Zillmer, E. A. (1998). The construct validity of the Tower of London DX as a measure of the executive functioning of ADHD children. Assessment, 5(3), 215–226. doi:10.1177/107319119800500302 Dronkers, N. F., Wilkins, D. P., Robert D Van Valin, Jr., Redfern, B. B., & Jaeger, J. J. (2004). Lesion analysis of the brain areas involved in language comprehension. Cognition, 92(1–2), 145–177. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.11.002 Duncan, J., Burgess, P., & Emslie, H. (1995). Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia, 33(3), 261–268. Fernandez-Duque, D., & Posner, M. I. (2001). Brain imaging of attentional networks in normal and pathological states. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23(1), 74–93. doi:10.1076/jcen.23.1.74.1217 Ferreira, F. (2003). The misinterpretation of noncanonical sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 47(2), 164–203. Ferreira, F., & Bailey, K. G. D. (2004). Disfluencies and human language comprehension. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(5), 231–237. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.03.011 Fontaine, A., Azouvi, P., Remy, P., Bussel, B., & Samson, Y. (1999). Functional anatomy of neuropsychological deficits after severe traumatic brain injury. Neurology, 53(9), 1963–1968. Ford, M., & Holmes, V. M. (1978). Planning units and syntax in sentence production. Cognition, 6(1), 35–53. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(78)90008-2 Frazier, L., & Fodor, J. D. (1978). The sausage machine: A new two-stage parsing model. Cognition, 6(4), 291–325. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(78)90002-1 Frazier, L., & Rayner, K. (1982). Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 14(2), 178–210. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(82)90008-1 Freud, S. (1927). The Ego and the Id, authorized transl. by Joan Rivière. London: Institute of Psychoanalysis. Garcia, A. A., Haron, Y., Evans, L. R., Smith, M. G., Freedman, M., & Roman, G. C. (2004). Metabolic markers of cobalamin deficiency and cognitive function in normal older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52(1), 66–71. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52012.x Garnsey, S. M., Pearlmutter, N. J., Myers, E., & Lotocky, M. A. (1997). The contributions of verb bias and plausibility to the comprehension of temporarily ambiguous sentences. Journal of Memory and Language, 37(1), 58–93. Grossman, M., Lee, C., Morris, J., Stern, M. B., & Hurtig, H. I. (2002). Assessing resource demands during dentence processing in Parkinson’s disease. Brain and Language, 80(3), 603–616. doi:10.1006/brln.2001.2630 Hammill, D. D., Brown, V. L., Larsen, S. C., & Wiederholt, J. L. (1994). Test of adolescent and adult language. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed. Harnishfeger, K. K. (1995). 6 - The development of cognitive inhibition: Theories, definitions, and research evidence. In Frank N. Dempster, C. J. B. Charles J. Brainerd and Charles J. BrainerdA2 - Frank N. Dempster, & Charles J. Brainerd (Eds.), Interference and Inhibition in Cognition (pp. 175–204). San Diego: Academic Press. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780122089305500076 Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(1), 26–32. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.003 Holmes, V. M. (1988). Hesitations and sentence planning. Language and Cognitive Processes, 3(4), 323–361. doi:10.1080/01690968808402093 January, D., Trueswell, J. C., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2008). Co-localization of Stroop and syntactic ambiguity resolution in Broca’s area: Implications for the neural basis of sentence processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(12), 2434–2444. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.21179

  19. Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., Marshuetz, C., Koeppe, R. A., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (1998). Inhibition in verbal working memory revealed by brain activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95(14), 8410–8413. Jurado, M. B., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review, 17(3), 213–233. doi:10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological review, 99, 122–149. Kehagia, A. A., Barker, R. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2013). Cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: The dual syndrome hypothesis. Neurodegenerative Diseases, 11(2), 79–92. doi:10.1159/000341998 Kemper, S., & Sumner, A. (2001). The structure of verbal abilities in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 16(2), 312–322. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.16.2.312 Kennedy, M. R. T., Coelho, C. A., Turkstra, L., Ylvisaker, M., Moore Sohlberg, M., Yorkston, K., … Kan, P.-F. (2008). Intervention for executive functions after traumatic brain injury: A systematic review, meta-analysis and clinical recommendations. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 18(3), 257–299. doi:10.1080/09602010701748644 Kimball, J. (1973). Seven principles of surface structure parsing in natural language. Cognition, 2(1), 15–47. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(72)90028-5 Klein, R. M. (2000). Inhibition of return. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(4), 138–147. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01452-2 Krasny-Pacini, A., Chevignard, M., & Evans, J. (2013). Goal Management Training for rehabilitation of executive functions: a systematic review of effectivness in patients with acquired brain injury. Disability and rehabilitation. doi:10.3109/09638288.2013.777807 Lehto, J. (1996). Are executive function tests dependent on working memory capacity? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 49(1), 29–50. doi:10.1080/713755616 Levine, B., Schweizer, T. A., O’Connor, C., Turner, G., Gillingham, S., Stuss, D. T., … Robertson, I. H. (2011). Rehabilitation of executive functioning in patients with frontal lobe brain damage with Goal Management Training. Frontiers Human Neuroscience, 5. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00009 Lezak, M. D. (1982). The problem of assessing executive functions. International Journal of Psychology, 17(1-4), 281–297. doi:10.1080/00207598208247445 Lovera, J., Bagert, B., Smoot, K. H., Wild, K., Frank, R., Bogardus, K., … Bourdette, D. N. (2006). Correlations of perceived deficits questionnaire of multiple sclerosis quality of life inventory with Beck Depression Inventory and neuropsychological tests. Journal of rehabilitation research and development, 43(1), 73–82. Luo, J., Niki, K., & Phillips, S. (2004). Neural correlates of the’Aha! reaction’. NeuroReport, 15(13), 2013–2017. Luria, A. . (1973). The Working brain: an introduction to neuropsychology. New York: Basic Books. Luria, A. R. (1966). Human Brain and Psychological Processes (First.). Harper & Row. MacDonald, M. C., & Christiansen, M. H. (2002). Reassessing working memory: comment on Just and Carpenter (1992) and Waters and Caplan (1996). Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/109/1/35/ MacDonald, Maryellen C., Pearlmutter, N. J., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1994). The lexical nature of syntactic ambiguity resolution. Psychological Review, 101(4), 676–703. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.4.676 Manly, T., Hawkins, K., Evans, J., Woldt, K., & Robertson, I. H. (2002). Rehabilitation of executive function: facilitation of effective goal management on complex tasks using periodic auditory alerts. Neuropsychologia, 40(3), 271–281. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00094-X Martin, R. C., Crowther, J. E., Knight, M., Tamborello II, F. P., & Yang, C.-L. (2010). Planning in sentence production: Evidence for the phrase as a default planning scope. Cognition, 116(2), 177–192. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.04.010 Mayas, J., Fuentes, L. J., & Ballesteros, S. (2012). Stroop interference and negative priming (NP) suppression in normal aging. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54(2), 333–338. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2010.12.012 Mazuka, R., Jincho, N., & Oishi, H. (2009). Development of executive control and language processing. Language and Linguistics Compass, 3(1), 59–89. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00102.x Mckinlay, A., Grace, R. C., Dalrymple-Alford, J. C., & Roger, D. (2010). Characteristics of executive function impairment in Parkinson’s disease patients without dementia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(02), 268–277. doi:10.1017/S1355617709991299 Merkley, T. L., Larson, M. J., Bigler, E. D., Good, D. A., & Perlstein, W. M. (2013). Structural and functional changes of the cingulate gyrus following traumatic brain injury: Relation to attention and executive skills. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 19(8), 899–910. doi:10.1017/S135561771300074X

  20. Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24(1), 167–202. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nappa, R., January, D., Gleitman, L. R., & Trueswell, J. C. (2004). Paying attention to attention: Perceptual priming effects on word order. In Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Retrieved from http://www.psych.upenn.edu/~gleitman/papers/Nappa_January_Gleitman_Trueswell_2004.pdf Nigg, J. T., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Rappley, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(1), 59–66. doi:10.1097/00004583-200201000-00012 Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation (Vol. 4, pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum. Novais-Santos, S., Gee, J., Shah, M., Troiani, V., Work, M., & Grossman, M. (2007). Resolving sentence ambiguity with planning and working memory resources: Evidence from fMRI. NeuroImage, 37(1), 361. Novick, J. M., January, D., Trueswell, J. C., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2004). Prefrontal cortex and the role of selectional processes in language comprehension: Frogs, napkins, and Broca’s area. In Poster presented at the 17th Annual CUNY Conference on Human Sentence Processing, Baltimore. Novick, J. M., Trueswell, J. C., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2005). Cognitive control and parsing: Reexamining the role of Broca’s area in sentence comprehension. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 5(3), 263–281. O’Connell, R. G., Bellgrove, M. A., Dockree, P. M., Lau, A., Fitzgerald, M., & Robertson, I. H. (2008). Self-Alert Training: Volitional modulation of autonomic arousal improves sustained attention. Neuropsychologia, 46(5), 1379–1390. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.12.018 Ozonoff, S., & Strayer, D. L. (1997). Inhibitory function in nonretarded children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(1), 59–77. doi:10.1023/A:1025821222046 Pardo, J. V., Pardo, P. J., Janer, K. W., & Raichle, M. E. (1990). The anterior cingulate cortex mediates processing selection in the Stroop attentional conflict paradigm. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 87(1), 256–259. Rayner, K., Carlson, M., & Frazier, L. (1983). The interaction of syntax and semantics during sentence processing: Eye movements in the analysis of semantically biased sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22(3), 358–374. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90236-0 Rayner, K., & Frazier, L. (1987). Parsing temporarily ambiguous complements. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 39(4), 657–673. doi:10.1080/14640748708401808 Salthouse, T. A., Atkinson, T. M., & Berish, D. E. (2003). Executive functioning as a potential mediator of age-related cognitive decline in normal adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132(4), 566–594. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.4.566 Seignourel, P. J., Robins, D. L., Larson, M. J., Demery, J. A., Cole, M., & Perlstein, W. M. (2005). Cognitive control in closed head injury: Context maintenance dysfunction or prepotent response inhibition deficit? Neuropsychology, 19(5), 578–590. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.5.578 Snow, P. C., Douglas, J. M., & Ponsfordoe, J. L. (1999). Narrative discourse following severe traumatic brain injury: a longitudinal follow-up. Aphasiology, 13(7), 529–551. doi:10.1080/026870399401993 Spreen, O., & Strauss, E. (1998). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and commentary. Oxford University Press New York. Stocco, A., Lebiere, C., O’Reilly, R. C., & Anderson, J. R. (2012). Distinct contributions of the caudate nucleus, rostral prefrontal cortex, and parietal cortex to the execution of instructed tasks. Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience, 12(4), 611–628. doi:10.3758/s13415-012-0117-7 Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. doi:10.1037/h0054651 Stuss, D. T., & Alexander, M. P. (2000). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a conceptual view. Psychological Research, 63(3-4), 289–298. doi:10.1007/s004269900007 Turkstra, L. S. (1998). The effect of stimulus presentation rate on syntax test performance in brain-injured adolescents. Aphasiology, 12(6), 421–433. doi:10.1080/02687039808249541 Turkstra, L. S., & Flora, T. L. (2002). Compensating for executive function impairments after TBI: a single case study of functional intervention. Journal of Communication Disorders, 35(6), 467–482. doi:10.1016/S0021-9924(02)00118-1

  21. Turkstra, L. S., & Holland, A. L. (1998). Assessment of syntax after adolescent brain injury: Effects of memory on test performance. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(1), 137–149. Ungar, L., Nestor, P. G., Niznikiewicz, M. A., Wible, C. G., & Kubicki, M. (2010). Color Stroop and negative priming in schizophrenia: An fMRI study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 181(1), 24–29. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.07.005 Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (1996). Processing resource capacity and the comprehension of garden path sentences. Memory & Cognition, 24(3), 342–355. doi:10.3758/BF03213298 Whitney, P., Arnett, P. A., Driver, A., & Budd, D. (2001). Measuring central executive functioning: What’s in a reading span? Brain and Cognition, 45(1), 1–14. doi:10.1006/brcg.2000.1243 Wilson, B. A., Gracey, F., Evans, J. J., & Bateman, A. (2009). Neuropsychological rehabilitation: Theory, models, therapy and outcome. Cambridge University Press New York. Retrieved from http://www.lavoisier.fr.proxy.lib.pdx.edu/livre/notice.asp?ouvrage=1441884 Wilson, S. P., & Kipp, K. (1998). The development of efficient inhibition: Evidence from directed-forgetting tasks. Developmental Review, 18(1), 86–123. doi:10.1006/drev.1997.0445 Ye, Z., & Zhou, X. (2008). Involvement of cognitive control in sentence comprehension: Evidence from ERPs. Brain Research, 1203, 103–115. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.01.090 Ye, Z., & Zhou, X. (2009). Executive control in language processing. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(8), 1168–1177. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.03.003 Yin, X., Zhao, L., Xu, J., Evans, A. C., Fan, L., Ge, H., … Liu, S. (2012). Anatomical substrates of the alerting, orienting and executive control components of attention: focus on the posterior parietal lobe. PloS one, 7(11), e50590. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050590

More Related