Motivation, pt. 2

1. Motivation, pt. 2 Enough about hunger, let’s talk about sex

2. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation • Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger- but we are all externals when it comes to sex. • People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing- none the less, they are biologically arousing.

3. Determinants of Desire • Hormonal regulation • Gonadal hormones • Pheromones • Aphrodisiacs • Erotic materials • Attraction to a Partner • The Coolidge effect • Evolutionary factors

4. Determinants of Desire • Hormonal regulation • Hormones exert considerable influence on sexual behavior in many animals, but human sexuality is influenced by much more than hormones • Gonadal hormones from the gonads • Estrogens from the ovaries • Androgens, like testosterone, from the testes

5. Determinants of Desire • Pheromones • A pheromone is a chemical secreted by one animal that affects the behavior of another, usually detected through the sense of smell. Research on pheromones in humans is inconclusive with regard to sexual desire; however, they have been linked to synchronized ovulation among women who live together.

7. Determinants of Desire • Aphrodisiacs • substances thought to increase sexual desire. Research shows that oysters, vitamin E, etc., have no real impact on sexual desire. • pharmaceutical companies are, however, working on developing aphrodisiacs, and there are promising leads.

8. Determinants of Desire • Erotic materials • Erotic materials have been shown to elevate sexual desire only for a few hours, but they may have an enduring effect on attitudes about sex.

9. Determinants of Desire • Attraction to a Partner • a critical determinant of sexual interest. The phenomenon of a new sexual partner reviving sexual interest is termed the Coolidge effect.

10. Evolutionary Analysis • Evolutionary factorsin human sexual behavior are theorized to hinge on parental investment, with females being more discriminating in choosing partners and less likely to engage in casual sex. • This has been used to explain sex differences such as males thinking about sex more frequently, males emphasizing youthfulness and attractiveness in a potential partner, and females emphasizing status and financial prospects in a potential partner.

11. Figure 10.7 Parental investment theory and mating preferences

12. Gender differences in sexual activity and mate preferences • Consistent with evolutionary theory • Clear gender disparities • May be exaggerated by self-report

13. Figure 10.8 The gender gap in how much people think about sex

14. Figure 10.11 Gender and potential mates’ physical attractiveness

15. Figure 10.10 Gender and potential mates’ financial prospects

16. Sexual Orientation • Person’s preference for same sex, different sex, or both sex (homo, hetero, bi) • Environmental Theories • Biological Theories

17. Determinates ofSexual Orientation • Most likely biologically determined • NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined. • Children raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by hetero parents.

19. Kinsey’s Studies • Kinsey wrote Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female • Confidential interviews with 18,000 people in the early 1950’s

20. Kinsey’s Scale of Sexuality Figure 10.12 Homosexuality and heterosexuality as endpoints on a continuum

21. Figure 10.13 How common is homosexuality?

22. Environmental Theories • Psychoanalytic and Behavioral Theorists

23. Psychoanalytic • According to Freud, parents were at fault for their children not becoming heterosexual • More specifically, homosexuality is a stage that every individual goes through and heterosexuality is only reached when the Oedipus and Electra complexes are passed • Furthermore, Freud believed that the homosexual identity was due to object choice and mental attitudes, being attracted to objects of their own sex and masculinity in females and femininity in males

24. Biological Theories • Hormonal differences? • Twin and adoption studies

25. Figure 10.14 Genetics and sexual orientation

26. Biological Theories • Effects of prenatal hormones on neurological development

27. Prenatal Environment • Current research points to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment. • We have created homosexual male fruit flies and lesbian sheep!!!

28. Masters and Johnson Study • After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

29. Figure 10.16 The gender gap in orgasm consistency

30. Simon LeVay • sexual orientation is based solely on innate, biological factors with in the brain with no impact from the environment • functional and structural differences between the brains of straight and gay people • ones sexuality is predetermined, even before birth due to biological factors. 

31. Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men.

32. Striking similarities between the brains of homosexual men and heterosexual offer evidence that sexual orientation is hardwired into our neural circuitry

33. Transgender • Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity are different. • Gender Identity is who we see ourselves as • Differences in the limbic system have become more apparent with research

34. Human Sexual Response

35. The Human Sexual Response • 4 Stages: • Initial Excitement • Plateau • Orgasm • Resolution (+ refractory)

36. Masters and Johnson • In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex. • 382 females and 312 males.

37. Figure 10.15 The human sexual response cycle

38. Featured Study

39. More

40. Moods across the day

41. Changing materialism

42. $20,000 $19,000 $18,000 $17,000 $16,000 $15,000 $14,000 $13,000 $12,000 $11,000 $10,000 $9,000 $8,000 $7,000 $6,000 $5,000 $4,000 Average per-person after-tax income in 1995 dollars 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Percentage describing themselves as very happy Personal income Percentage very happy 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year Does money buy happiness?

43. Adaptation-Level Phenomenon • Defined by our prior experience • Tendency to form judgments relative to a “neutral” level • brightness of lights • volume of sound • level of income • Current level of happiness/satisfaction may not be enough • May want to increase level and strive to do something more challenging

44. Adaptation-Level Phenomenon • Relative Deprivation • perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

45. However, Happiness Seems Not Much Related to Other Factors, Such as Age Gender (women are more often depressed, but also more often joyful) Education levels Parenthood (having children or not) Physical attractiveness Researchers Have Found That Happy People Tend to Have high self-esteem (in individualistic countries) Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable Have close friendships or a satisfying marriage Have work and leisure that engage their skills Have a meaningful religious faith Sleep well and exercise Happiness is...

46. When Motives Conflict • approach-approach conflict • avoidance-avoidance conflict • approach-avoidance conflict • Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts

47. Stress • Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) • Life Changing Units (LCUs)- marriage, change job, etc… • The more LCUs you have the higher your score is on the SRRS. • Those who score higher are more likely to have stress related disease.