Non Violent Resistance to Hitler – the ultimate test of a method? Can it be an effective form of national defence?

1. Non Violent Resistance to Hitler – the ultimate test of a method?Can it be an effective form of national defence? Case study of the Danish Resistance 1940- 1945 Case Study of the Norwegian Teachers Resistance An Alternate Defence?

2. Denmark May 1940 • Denmark militarily weak, and idea of non violent resistance as a military defence policy proposed by Stephen King-Hall in 1938. • Nazi’s break non aggression pact signed the year before. • 9 May 1940 Invasion of Denmark, preceded by Nazi ultimatum. • In return for immediate submission, political independence and territorial integrity respected. • Danish Royal family and existing Government remain in place. • ‘Samarbejdspolitik’ policy of cooperation – compliance but not surrender.

3. Denmark 1940 • Cultural Resistance – ‘through symbolic and cultural protests, they asserted their right to govern their own lives’ Ackerman and Duval A Force More Powerful page 238. • King Christian X became symbolic symbol of Danish ‘cultural resistance’. • 1 September – estimated one fifth country take part in community singing. • Resistance style symbols used extensively – red, white and blue caps popular amongst students before being banned. • 25 November demonstrations against Danish Minister Eric Scavenius signature of Anti-Comintern Pact in Berlin, placing Denmark on side of Axis powers.

4. Denmark Spring 1943 • 1940-Spring 1943 development of underground press only real noticeable resistance. • Danish underground press- ‘matured quickly and was never really suppressed’ Ackerman and Duval A Force More Powerful page 216. • 1945 estimate of underground press at monthly distribution of three million copies. • Important to counter Nazi propaganda, allow voice of resistance to be heard and encourage more industrial sabotage.

5. Denmark Spring 1943 Sabotage Attacks • From 1943 Sabotage attacks increase. • Fairly classified as non-violent? Gene Sharp himself classifies Danish (and Dutch and Norwegian) non violent resistance as a ‘mixed case’. • Role of the Freedom Council to co-ordinate activities, aim solely for material destruction not the killing of German soldiers. • Specific instructions against ‘desultory attacks on German interests and random killings of German troops’. • Overall estimate nearly 3000 reported cases. • Significance as a political weapon which made resistance visible and directly led to nationwide strikes. • Reference: Pedersen and Holm ‘Restraining Excesses’ Terrorism and Political Violence 10 (Spring 1998)

6. Denmark August 1943 Strikes • August 1943 Strikes prompted by ‘psychological wind of change’ – falling living standards, increase in sabotage, German defeats on eastern front. • Estimated one tenth of population take part in nationwide strikes in August 1943. • Most violent in Odense, shipbuilders on strike after German occupation of yard in response to sabotage attack. • Nazi demand for martial law, lead to resignation of Danish government. • Nazi adopt full military control and status of Denmark as an occupied country was clarified. • Quote ‘ a clear breach had occurred, and the underground needn’t compete with a constituted government for people’s loyalty’ Ackerman and Kruegler Strategic non Violent Conflict page 227

7. Denmark October 1943 Danish Jews Escape • October 1943 attempt by Nazi’s to round up Danish Jews. • Leak via German shipping attache, warnings issued and rescue plans implemented. • Secretly transported to safety in Sweden. • Quote ‘ apart form the value of saving over seven thousand lives, the rescue operation represented a major defeat for the occupiers’ Ackerman and Kruegler Strategic Non Violent Conflict page 229

8. Denmark June 1944 Copenhagen General Strike • Copenhagen June 1944 Strike result in city being closed. • Following sabotage problems, state of emergency declared with dawn to dusk curfew. • Burmeister and Wain diesel factory start ‘go home early’ campaign to allow them to tend gardens! • Large crowds, street demonstrations, tanks used to restore order, over 100 Danish citizens killed. • Compromise agreement demonstrations and strikes stopped in return for curfew to be lifted.

9. Denmark Jez Thoughts • Quote “The story of Danish resistance is largely one of nonviolent sanctions as improvised instruments of social and political defence against the backdrop of World War II”. Ackerman and Kruegler ‘Strategic Non Violent Conflict’ pg 213 • Definition of ‘non violent’ meaningless? For Denmark the choice was between ‘resistance and diplomacy’ or minimal co-operation with the invaders. Ackerman and Kruegler ‘Strategic Non Violent Conflict’ pg 213 • ‘Cultural ‘resistance, able to maintain distinctiveness and morale. Role of the underground press very important. • Psychological and political importance of sabotage and strike resistance.

10. Norway The Teachers Resistance • Fight of the Teachers became highly symbolic. Norway government and Royal family in exile, run by Reichskomissar. • Started in summer 1941 in response to deliberate take over of teachers union, teachers continue to meet in secret. • Issue own personal declarations to counter orders from authorities. • February 1942 Quisling become Minister President. • 1000 teachers arrested sent to forced labour camp, worse in far North in Kirkenes, on Arctic Circle. • Eventually give up attempt at control.

11. An Alternate Defence? Notes Michael Randle Civil Resistance Chapter 5 Influential Texts Bertrand Russell 1915 ‘Atlantic Monthly’ Krishnalal Shridharani 1939 ‘War without Violence: a study of Gandhi’s Method and its Accomplishments’ Stephen King-Hall 1938 and 1958 ‘Defence in the Nuclear Age’ Adam Roberts 1967 ‘Strategy of Civilian Defence’ • Quote ‘ Defence by civil resistance, then is a prepared system of national defence based on non violent forms of action and /or the actual deployment of such means against foreign invasion’ Randle Civil Resistance page 130. • Could either complement or replace the traditional military system of deterrence and defence?