Philosophy of Science

1. Philosophy of Science Instructor: Julian Hasford Teaching Assistant: Keith Adamson PS398 Qualitative Methods in Psychology January 13, 2009

2. AGENDA • Glossary: Post-Modernism • Review • Lecture: Philosophy of Science • Memoing Exercise • Next Class…

3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • By the end of this session, you should be able to: • Analyze the main components of qualitative and quantitative research • Discuss the philosophical assumptions (and logic) of various scientific paradigms • Analyze how philosophical paradigms influence research method and substance • Articulate a personal stance

4. POST-MODERNISM • Definition • Intellectual movement that challenges modernist conceptions (“grand narratives”) of science, truth, and objectivity (Gergen, 2000; Patton, 2002) • Language can not fully capture truth or reality (Crisis of Representation) • Argues that truth is constructed through language, and language constructed through cultural processes (language games, consensus, power) • Science is social constructed • Values multiple truths

5. POST-MODERNISM • Methodological/Theoretical Significance • Influential in social sciences and humanities (Psychology slower to adopt than other disciplines) (Gergen, 2000) • Research focuses on social construction of reality through language, symbols, metaphors, etc. • Phenomena treated as text • Analysis through deconstruction (take apart text to expose hidden assumptions, contradictions, ideological interests) (Patton, 2002)

6. POST-MODERNISM • Methodological/Theoretical Significance • Conclusions are localized, tentative, tolerate dissensus (Johnson & Cassell, 2001) • Reflexivity (esp. Epistemological) • Influenced discourse analysis and narrative methodological orientations • Risk of extreme moral or epistemological relativism, which can justify oppression or undermine value of all knowledge

7. POST-MODERNISM • Example • Examines implications of post-modernism for the discipline of work psychology • Work psychology dominated by positivism, excludes subjectivity (Qualitative approaches still based on positivist understanding) • Limits what is known about work, limits reflexivity in psychology research and practice • Postmodernists erode apparently self-evident meta-narratives through: • Identifying particular ways of seeing and acting that a discourse takes and excludes; • Analysing social processes that make it possible for such a discourse to be historically constituted • Analysing how it is reconstituted into new discursive formations • Identifying the effects of such a discourse upon people.

8. POST-MODERNISM • Example • Discipline and sub-disciplines of work psychology seen as discourses that are constructed to define legitimate work psychology that exclude non-qualified members and restrict acceptable forms of knowledge • Phenomena such as stress, personality, motivation not seen as real objects, but as linguistic constructs taken to be real and produced by discipline • Examine how constructs stress come about (stressologists industry) • Human Resource discourse found to reflect masculine regimes of rationality that exclude and suppress women as irrational (management selection tests based on masculine norms)

9. POST-MODERNISM • References Gergen, K. (2000). Psychology in postmodern context. American Psychologist, 56(10), 803-813. Johnson, P. & Cassell, C. (2001). Epistemology and work psychology: New agendas. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 125-143 Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (3rd Ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

10. RE(VIEW) • Strategies of Research (Methodologies) • Goals • Design Strategies • Control over phenomena? • Use of predetermined categories? • Sampling? • Data Collection Strategies • Nature of data and instruments? • Research Relationship? • Analysis Strategies • Reasoning process? • Emphasis? Goals? • Role of researcher in analysis?

11. RE(VIEW) • Quantitative Strategy • Goals • Design Strategies • Experiment • Randomization • Probability Sampling • Data Collection Strategies • Quantitative Data • Distance & Objectivity • Reductionist • Analysis Strategies • Hypothetical-Deductive: begins with hypotheses • Statistical verification & Generalization • Reductionist & Mechanistic • Context-free (Control)

12. RE(VIEW) • Qualitative Strategies • Goals • Design Strategies • Naturalistic • Emergent/flexible • Purposeful sampling • Data Collection Strategies • Qualitative data • Personal engagement • Empathic neutrality • Dynamic Systems • Analysis Strategies • Unique case orientation • Inductive analysis & Creative synthesis • Holistic • Context • Reflexivity

13. REVIEW

14. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • What is philosophy of science? • Conceptual roots undergirding the quest for knowledge • Fundamental beliefs or assumptions about • Ontology (the nature of reality and being) • Epistemology (the study of knowledge) • Axiology (the role of values in the research process) • Methodology (the process and procedures of research) • Rhetorical structure (the language of the research) and presentation of the research)

15. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Why think about philosophy of science? • Increases clarity of research purpose • Enhances reflexivity • Broadens and deepens theoretical sensitivity • Increases quality and rigor

16. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Science • Definition • Systematic collection and analysis of data • Create knowledge and solve problems • Empiricism

17. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Paradigms • Set of interrelated assumptions about the world which provides a philosophical and conceptual framework for the organized study of that world (Filstead, 1979 in Patton, 2002) • Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology, Axiology, Rhetorical Structure • Major Paradigms • Reality-oriented • Social Constructionist • Critical-Ideological

18. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Reality-oriented Paradigms • Belief in external reality, where events result from underlying mechanisms or structures • Objectivity is desirable • Goals are explanation, laws, prediction, control • Variations • Positivism (Comte) • Real knowledge based on claims that are verifiable by direct experience (mathematical formulas); distinguish “positive knowledge” (empirically based) from theology and metaphysics (based on fallible human reason and belief) • Post-positivist (Popper) • Human ability to gain real knowledge is limited. Falsification over verification as criteria for assessing claims • Realism • Similar to post-positivism. Recognize subjectivity and takes pragmatic rather formalistic approach to research. No difference between qualitative and quantitative methods.

19. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Social Constructionist Paradigms • Believe in multiple, equally valid realities (subjective and socially constructed) • Goals are understanding lived experience (verstehen) • Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

20. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Critical Paradigms - Believe that reality mediated by power relations within social, historical contexts • Goals are emancipation and transformation

21. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Ontology • Focus • Nature of being and reality • What can be known • Paradigmatic • Positivism: One true external reality, operates by universal laws, can be known with some certainty • Constructivism • Critical

22. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Epistemology • Focus • Theories of Knowledge (how we know, who can know) • Relationship between Knower and Known • Paradigmatic • Positivism • Constructivism • Critical

23. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Methodology (and Methods) • Focus • The way of doing research (Design, Data Collection, Analysis) • Methods are the how of doing research • Paradigmatic • Positivism • Constructivism • Critical

24. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Axiology • Focus • The role of values in research • Standpoint, Research Relationship • Paradigmatic • Positivism • Constructivism • Critical

25. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Rhetorical Structure • Focus • Language • Voice • Paradigmatic • Positivism • Constructivism • Critical

26. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Video • Questions • What are the author’s claims? • What epistemological assumptions inform the author’s claims? • What epistemological assumptions are the hosts criticisms based upon? • Do you agree with the epistemological basis of the author’s claims and/or the hosts’ criticisms?

27. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Video

28. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE • Video • Questions • What are the author’s claims? • What epistemological assumptions inform the author’s claims? • What epistemological assumptions are the hosts criticisms based upon? • Do you agree with the epistemological basis of the author’s claims and/or the hosts’ criticisms?

29. EXERCISE • Memoing • Short written documents that are produced throughout qualitative research • Document researcher’s analytical process • Stimulates reflection and analysis • Promote creative insights through brainstorming and freewriting • Develop writing skills

30. EXERCISE • Memoing • Format • Typed • ~1 page (single-spaced) • Title (indicates content) and date • Sentence form. Should be coherent.

31. EXERCISE • Instructions • Write memo on following questions • What paradigm do you identify most closely with? Why? • How would that paradigm influence our approach to studying money in this class? • Purpose, Methodology, Axiology • What are some limitations to what we can know using this approach? • Turn to partner and discuss your thoughts

32. NEXT CLASS… • Theoretical Orientations