Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Answersː High Tone Lowering (GAAHMG Sudan)

1. Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Answersː High Tone Lowering (GAAHMG Sudan) /H/  [M] after L + / 2 43 / /2 33 / aɔl-ɛɛg aɔl-ɛɛg ‘brother’ /L-HM/ /L-M/ / 4 43 / / 4 43 / luɲ-ɛɛg luɲ-ɛɛg ‘boomerang’ /H-HM/ /H-HM/ RootSuffix Tone/Tone/Noun SGNoun PL /H/ -ə́g /H/ kə́s kə́s-ə́g ‘sorghum’ /M/ -ə́g /H/ fānd̪ fə̄nd̪-ə́g ‘cheek’ /L/ -ə́g /H/ bə̀ɲɟ bə̀ɲɟ-ə̄g ‘pulp’ /H/ -ɛ́ɛ̄g /HM/ lúɲ lúɲ-íīg ‘boomerang’ /M/ -ɛ́ɛ̄g /HM/ rāāj rāāj-ɛ́ɛ̄g ‘war’ /L/ -ɛ́ɛ̄g /HM/ àɔ̀l àɔ̀l-ɛ̄ɛ̄g ‘brother’

2. Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Review Which 4 frames are the most useful for finding tone changes across word boundaries?

3. Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Review Which 4 frames are the most useful for finding tone changes across word boundaries? 1) High after 3) High before 2) Low after 4) Low before [4 4] [4 4] 1) ____ fʊrɪ ‘ ____’s deer’ 3) fʊrɪ ____ ‘deer’s ____’ [2 a] [2 a] 2) ____ keri ‘ ____’s lizard’ 4) keri ____ ‘lizard’s ____’

4. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System A. Decide how many tone melodies there are B. Decide how many underlying level tone phonemes (contrastive tone heights) C. Find the tone phoneme distribution D. Predict the environment for any tone neutralization and tone allophones E. Find how to predict tone changes across morpheme and word boundaries F. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone G. Find the functional load of tone H. Decide if/how to write tone in the orthography.

5. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System E. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone 1. Find tone minimal pairs in roots. 2. Find tone minimal pairs in attached morphemes. 3. Find grammatical differences made only by tone.

6. Lexical (Word) Tone Contrasts Root tone minimal pairs GAAHMG Sudan /H/ - /M/sə́ə́m ‘hunter’ sə̄ə̄m ‘medicine’ /H/ - /L/d̪áár ‘throne’ d̪ààr ‘eagle’ /H/ - /HL/káár ‘stew’ káàr ‘male goat’ /H/ - /ML/ kɔ́ðɛ́l ‘painting (n)’ kɔ̄ðɛ̀l ‘baboon’ /M/ - /L/ ə̄ə̄r ‘anger’ ə̀ə̀r ‘sheep’ /M/ - /ML/ bāāl ‘cave’ bāàl ‘instrument’ /M/ - /MH/ mīī ‘goat’ mīí ‘chicken’ /L/ - /ML/ d̪ɛ̀ɛ̀l ‘shelf’ d̪ɛ̄ɛ̀l ‘lake’ /L/ - /MH/ ɟɛ̀ɛ̀m ‘thing’ ɟɛ̄ɛ́m ‘sieve’ /L/ - /LM/ bàrɔ̀ɔ̀l ‘snake type’ bàrɔ̄ɔ̄l ‘cistern’

7. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System E. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone 1. Find tone minimal pairs in roots. 2. Find tone minimal pairs in affixes. 3. Find grammatical differences made only by tone.

8. Lexical (Word) Tone Contrasts Attached morpheme tone minimal pairs which have the same grammar GAAHMG Sudan Noun SGPL Suffix /Tone/Noun PL H kāāj -ɛ̄ɛ̄g /M/ kāāj-ɛ̄ɛ̄g ‘witch doctor’ Hrāāj -ɛ́ɛ̄g /HM/ rāāj-ɛ́ɛ̄g ‘war, quarrel (n)’ M t̪īrd̪ -āg /M/ t̪īrd̪-ə̄g ‘farms’ Mmīīd̪ -ág /H/mīīd̪-ə́g ‘stones’ HM síīɟ -ag Toneless sííɟ-ə̄g ‘tree types’ HM káɛ̄d̪ -āg /M/ káɛ̄d̪-āg ‘cups’

9. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System E. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone 1. Find tone minimal pairs in roots. 2. Find tone minimal pairs in affixes. 3. Find grammatical differences made only by tone.

10. Grammatical (role, function) Tone Contrasts Attached morpheme tone minimal pairs which have different grammar GAAHMG Sudan Suffix /Tone/WordGrammar -a᷄n /MH/ kɔ́m-a᷄n Continuous Past ‘he was chopping’ -án /H/kɔ́m-án Continuous Present ‘he is chopping’ -ā /M/ d̪ə̄m-ə̄ Copula ‘is an Arab’ -á /H/ d̪ə̄m-ə́ Definite ‘this Arab’

11. Grammatical (role, function) Tone Contrasts Tone is a morpheme by itself (without segments) that attaches to words GAAHMG Sudan ToneVerbGrammar H kɔ́m Infinitive ‘chop’ -M á kɔ᷇m First Person Singular ‘I chop’ -Hɛ̄kɔ́m Third Person Singular ‘he chops’ -Lɛ̄gkɔ̂m Third Person Plural ‘they chop’ -M á kɔ́m-sɔ̄ First Person Singular ‘I chopped’ -Hɛ̄kɔ́m-sɔ́ Third Person Singular ‘he chopped’ -Lɛ̄gkɔ́m-sɔ̀ Third Person Plural ‘they chopped’ Completive suffix –sɔ is toneless

12. Grammatical (role, function) Tone Contrasts Tone is a morpheme by itself that replaces the underlying tone of words GAAHMG Sudan Root Tone on nounGenitive tone on noun Ht̪ɔ́ɔ́ ML t̪ɔ̄ɔ̀ ‘cow’ L d̪ìì ML d̪īì ‘rat’ HL wírì ML wīrì ‘bird’ HM súlə̄ ML sūlə᷆ ‘clan member ML ɲūūì ML ɲūūì ‘leopard’ LH àgáár ML āgāàr ‘hunter’ LM mɔ̀rāā ML mɔ̄rāà ‘governor’ MHM kūd̪úúrīī ML kūd̪ūūrīì ‘bird type’ ‘BELI Sudan Root Tone on nounPrepositional tone on noun L dɔ̀ ‘head’ M dɔ̄ ‘on’ L k͡pà ‘mouth’ M k͡pā ‘at’ L ɓɔ̀ ‘footprint’ M bɔ̄ ‘for’ L kɔ̀ ‘eye’ M kɔ̄ ‘between’ L rò ‘back’ M rō ‘ahead of’

13. LEXICAL (Word) TONE: Difference in roots made only by tone (tone minimal pairs) /H/ - /M/sə́ə́m ‘hunter’ sə̄ə̄m ‘medicine’ Difference in attached morphemes made only by tone, where the morphemes have the same grammar. -ɛ̄ɛ̄g /M/ kāāj-ɛ̄ɛ̄g Plural noun ‘witch doctor’ -ɛ́ɛ̄g /HM/ rāāj-ɛ́ɛ̄g Plural noun ‘war, quarrel’ GRAMATICAL (Role, function) TONEː Difference in attached morphemes made only by tone, where the morphemes have different grammar. -a᷄n /MH/ kɔ́m-a᷄n Continuous Past ‘he was chopping’ -án /H/kɔ́m-án Continuous Present ‘he is chopping’ Difference in grammar made only by an attached tone morpheme -M /kɔ́m-M/  kɔ᷇m First Person Singular ‘I chop’ -L/kɔ́m-L/  kɔ̂m Third Person Plural ‘they chop’ Difference in grammar made only by a tone morpheme replacement H /t̪ɔ́ɔ́/  t̪ɔ́ɔ́ Subject noun ‘cow’ ML /t̪ɔ́ɔ́ML/  t̪ɔ̄ɔ̀ Genitive noun ‘of cow’

14. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System A. Decide how many tone melodies there are B. Decide how many underlying level tone phonemes (contrastive tone heights) C. Find the tone phoneme distribution D. Predict the environment for any tone neutralization and tone allophones E. Find how to predict tone changes across morpheme and word boundaries F. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone G. Find the functional load of tone H. Decide if/how to write tone in the orthography.

15. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds or words missingː en_ouragemen _ _nter_ain_ent He stood ___ from the chair. After many years of fighting the illness, he kicked the ____. . . . he went to the ____. And when he arrived at the market, he . . .

16. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds or words missingː Encouragement Intertainment He stood up from the chair. After many years of fighting the illness, he kicked the bucket. . . . he went to the market. And when he arrived at the market, he . . . Sometimes, the meaning can still be communicated without all the phonemes or words.

17. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds missingː be__ b__t

18. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds missingː be__ b__t bet bit beat bed bat bait bell boat bought been boot but bet In places where there are many possible phonemes , the meaning cannot be communicated without all the phonemes.

19. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are words missingː We are therefore Christ’s ___________, as though God were making his appeal through us. We ______ you on Christ’s behalf: Be ________ to God.

20. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are words missingː We are therefore Christ’s ambassadors, as though God were making his appeal through us. We implore (beg) you on Christ’s behalf: Be reconciled (brought near) to God. In some sentences, the meaning cannot be communicated without all the words.

21. FUNCTIONAL LOADː The number of environments and words in which a phoneme occurs, and the frequency of those environments and words. There are only 3 of 1000 nouns with /e/ and 50 of 1000 nouns with /ɛ/, bep ‘giraffe’ dɛp ‘goat’ The functional load of a rare phoneme such as /e/ is low. This phoneme could have the same symbol as for /ɛ/ (under-differentiation) without problem.

22. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System G. Find the functional load of tone 1. Find the ratio of words in tone minimal pairs to words not in tone minimal pairs. 2. In different kinds of texts, find the ratio of a grammatical distinction made only by tone to the number of sentences. 3. Compare the functional load of tone to the functional load of other communication factors (number of syllable types, consonants, vowels, etc)

23. Functional Load of Lexical Tone Same parts of Speech (GAAHMG Sudan) Nouns /M/ - /MH/ mīī ‘goat’ mīí ‘chicken’ Verbs /L/ - /HM/ bɛ̀l ‘hit’ bɛ᷇l ‘call’ Demonstratives /H/ - /L/ nɛ́ɛ́ ‘this’ nɛ̀ɛ̀ ‘these’ Prepositions /L/ - /H/ ɛ̀ ‘with’ ɛ́ ‘to, at’ In Gaahmg, 44 of 700 nouns (6%) are in tone minimal pairs. 3% (or higher) in the same part of speech is moderate lexical tone functional load, and may need to be represented in the orthography. Different parts of Speech /H/ - /M/ káɛ́n ‘complete (ADJ)’ kāɛ̄n ‘yesterday (ADV)’ In Gaahmg, 75 of 900 in words (8%) are in tone minimal pairs. 5% (or higher) in all parts of speech is moderate lexical tone functional load, and may need to be represented in the orthography.

24. Exercise 1ː Find all tone minimal pair contrasts. Find the lexical tone functional load in nouns. Find the tone functional load in words. ‘BELI Sudan 1. /L/ ɗò ‘thigh’ 2. /L/ kɔ̀ ‘eye’ 3. /H/ ɓɪ́ ‘day’ 4. /H/ ɗɔ́ ‘thing’ 5. /L/ ɓɔ̀ ‘footprint’ 6. /L/ ɓò ‘father’ 7. /LM/ də᷅ ‘grandparent’ 8. /MH/ pi᷄ ‘bamboo’ 9. /H/ dá ‘meat’ 10./L/ bì ‘hair’ 11./LM/ bi᷅ ‘place’ 12./HL/ ɗɔ̂ ‘cultivate (V)’ 13./H/ ko ‘seed’ 14./HL/ ɗô ‘put down (V)’

25. Exercise 1ː Find all tone minimal pair contrasts. Find the lexical tone functional load in nouns. Find the tone functional load in words. ‘BELI Sudan 1. /L/ ɗò ‘thigh’ 2. /L/ kɔ̀ ‘eye’ 3. /H/ ɓɪ́ ‘day’ 4. /H/ ɗɔ́ ‘thing’ 5. /L/ ɓɔ̀ ‘footprint’ 6. /L/ ɓò ‘father’ 7. /LM/ də᷅ ‘grandparent’ 8. /MH/ pi᷄ ‘bamboo’ 9. /H/ dá ‘meat’ 10./L/ bì ‘hair’ 11./LM/ bi᷅ ‘place’ 12./HL/ ɗɔ̂ ‘cultivate (V)’ 13./H/ kó ‘seed’ 14./HL/ ɗô ‘put down (V)’ Contrasts L-HL ɗò ‘thigh’ ɗô ‘put down (V)’ H-HL ɗɔ́ ‘thing’ ɗɔ̂ ‘cultivate (V)’ L-LM bì ‘hair’ bi᷅ ‘place’ 2 of 14 nouns (14%) are in tone minimal pairs with other nouns 6 of 14 words (42%) are in tone minimal pairs with other words.

26. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System G. Find the functional load of tone 1. Find the ratio of words in tone minimal pairs to words not in tone minimal pairs. 2. In different kinds of texts, find the ratio of a grammatical distinction made only by tone to the number of sentences. 3. Compare the functional load of tone to the functional load of other communication factors (number of syllable types, consonants, vowels, etc)

27. Functional Load of Grammatical Tone ‘BELI Sudan Root Tone on nounPrepositional tone on noun L dɔ̀ gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘head of man’ M dɔ̄ gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘on man’ L k͡pà gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘mouth of man’ M k͡pā gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘at man’ L ɓɔ̀ gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘footprint of man’ M bɔ̄ gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘for man’ L kɔ̀ gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘eye of man’ M kɔ̄ gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘between man’ L rò gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘back of man’ M rō gɔ̀mʊ́ ‘ahead of man’ In one ‘BELI story (narrative), there were 9 times in 17 sentences (50%) that one of these words occurred 10% or higher in one story is moderate grammatical tone functional load, and may need to be represented in the orthography.

28. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17. Study the Tone System E. Find the functional load of tone 1. Find the ratio of words in tone minimal pairs to words not in tone minimal pairs. 2. In different kinds of texts, find the ratio of a grammatical distinction made only by tone to the number of sentences. 3. Compare the functional load of tone to the functional load of other communication factors (number of syllable types, consonants, vowels, etc)

29. In each picture, blue blocks hold up the same size house. In which picture does each block have to hold more weight?

30. In each picture, blue blocks hold up the same size house. In which picture does each block have to hold more weight? When there are fewer blocks, each block holds more weight.

31. Communication Factors Number of tone melodies (H, L, HL, LH) Number of tone phonemes (/H/, /M/, /L/) Number of consonant phonemes (/p/, /b/) Number of vowel phonemes (/e/, /ɛ/) Number of syllable types (CV, CVC, CVCC) Number of word syllable patterns (CV, CVCV, CVCVC) For each factor, the fewer the number of items, the greater the functional load on those items. DIDINGA Sudan has 36 consonant phonemes; LAARIM Sudan has 20. In which language do consonants have more functional load? GAAHMG has 6 vowel phonemes; ‘BELI has 10. In which language do vowel phonemes have more functional load?

32. ‘BELI has more vowel phonemes to hold up the meaning. ‘BELI /ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ/ /i, e, ə, o, u/ Gaahmg has fewer vowel phonemes to hold up the meaning. So vowel phonemes in Gaahmg have a higher functional load than vowel phonemes in ‘Beli. GAAHMG /ɛ, ɔ, a/ /i, u, ə/

33. Communication Factors Number of tone melodies (H, L, HL, LH) Number of tone phonemes (/H/, /M/, /L/) Number of consonant phonemes (/p/, /b/) Number of vowel phonemes (/e/, /ɛ/) Number of syllable types (CV, CVC, CVCC) Number of word syllable patterns (CV, CVCV, CVCVC) The fewer the items in non-tone factors, the greater the tone functional load. LAARIM has 4 syllable types and 10 word syllable patterns; ‘BELI has 1 syllable type and 2 word syllable patterns. Which language has greater tone functional load?

34. Laarim has more items in other communication factors to hold up the meaning. LAARIM kīd̪ōōrí ‘lyre’ ‘Beli has fewer items in other communication factors. It must rely more on tone to hold up the meaning. So, tone has a higher functional load in ‘Beli than in Laarim. ‘BELI ki ‘stool’

35. Class Assignmentː Find all tone minimal pair contrasts in Yoruba pronouns (either present pronouns or possessive pronouns). Say whether the functional load of tone in Yoruba pronouns is Low, Moderate or High. Reading Assignment Tone Analysis for Field Linguists (5.2-5.3.1) pg 95-102; (5.7-5.8) pg. 139-143.