Explanation

1. Explanation InterruptsSystem Interconnections

2. Interrupts • A computer system must provide a method for allowing mechanisms to interrupt the normal processing. • Interrupts improve processor efficiency • Most external devices are much slower than the processor and ‘busy waiting’ takes up too many resources. • Examples: • External interrupts: • Timing device, Circuit monitoring the power supply, I/O device requesting data or completed data transfer etc. Timeout errors. • Internal interrupts (caused by an exception condition). • Illegal use of an instruction or data (traps)example: register overflow, attempt to divide by zero, invalid op code, stack overflow etcTimer: OS system can perform operations on a regular basis. • Software Interrupts – Special call instruction that behaves like an interrupt.

3. Benefits of Interrupts • Short I/O – the I/O operation is completed within the time it takes to execute instructions in the program that occur before the next I/O command. The processor is kept busy the whole time. • Long I/O - The ‘next’ I/O command comes before first I/O has completed. Processor still needs to wait. Some time is saved !

4. An example • Busy Wait: • Consider a computer that can execute two instructions that read the status register and check the flag in 1 µs. • Input device transfers data at an average rate of 100 bytes per second – equivalent to one byte every 10,000 µs. • The CPU will check the flag 10,000 times between each transfer. • Interrupt Driven: • CPU could use this time to perform other useful processing.

5. Interrupt Cycle • The interrupt cycle is added to the instruction cycle. • Processor checks for interrupt indicated by an interrupt flag. • If there is NO interrupt  Fetch next instruction • If there is an interrupt: • Suspend operation of the program • Save its context • Set PC to start address of the interrupt handler • Process the interrupt • Restore the context of the original program and continue its execution.

6. Instruction Cycle with Interrupts • Following each execute cycle: • Check for interrupts • Handle active interrupts

7. Instruction Cycle with Interrupts • Disable interrupts • Processor will ignore further interrupts whilst processing one interrupt • Interrupts remain pending and are checked after first interrupt has been processed • Interrupts handled in sequence as they occur • Define priorities • Low priority interrupts can be interrupted by higher priority interrupts • When higher priority interrupt has been processed, processor returns to previous interrupt

8. Handling Multiple Interrupts • Sequential approach – once an interrupt handler has been started it runs to completion • (+) Simpler • (-) Does not handle priority interrupts well Example: Incoming data might be lost. • Nested approach – a higher priority device can interrupt a lower priority one. • (+) More complex • (-) Interrupts get handled in order of priority.

9. Priority Interrupts • Polling • One common branch address for all interrupts. • Interrupt sources polled in priority sequence. • If an interrupt signal is ‘on’, control branches to a service routine for this source. • (-) Time overhead to handle many interrupts can be excessive. • The operation can be sped up with a hardware priority-interrupt unit. • Daisy-Chain Priority • Hardware solution • Serial connection of all devices that request interrupts. • Device with the highest priority takes first position, 2nd highest takes 2nd position etc. • Interrupt request line shared by all devices.

10. Daisy-chain Priority InterruptA Serial Approach Processor data bus VAD 1 VAD 2 VAD 3 Device 1 Device 2 Device 3 PI P0 PI P0 PI P0 INT Interrupt Request CPU INTACK Interrupt Acknowledge

11. S Q R One stage of the daisy-chain Priority Arrangement . . Priority In PI Vector Address . Interrupt request from device PO RF Priority Out Delay Open-collector inverter Interrupt request to CPU From: Computer System Architecture, Morris Mano

12. Parallel Priority Interrupt • Uses a register – whose bits are set separately by the interrupt signal from each device. • Priority established according to the position of bits in the interrupt register. • A mask register is used to control the status of each interrupt request. Mask bits set programmatically. • Priority encoder generates low order bits of the VAD, which is transferred to the CPU. • Encoder sets an interrupt status flip-flop IST whenever a non-masked interrupt occurs. • Interrupt enable flip-flop provides overall control over the interrupt system.

13. Parallel Priority Interrupt Hardware Interrupt Register Disk I0 0 Printer y 1 I1 x Priority Encoder Reader 2 I2 0 0 Keyboard 3 I3 0 0 0 0 IEN IST 0 1 From: Computer System Architecture, Morris Mano Enable 2 Interrupt to CPU 3 INTACK from CPU MaskRegister

14. Priority Encoder • Circuit that implements the priority function. • Logic – if two or more inputs arrive at the same time, the input having the highest priority will take precedence. • Boolean functions • X = I’0I’1 Y = I’0I1 + I’0I’2 IST = I0 + I1 + I2 + I3

15. Interrupt Cycle • The Interrupt enable flip-flop (IEN) can be set or cleared by program instructions. • A programmer can therefore allow interrupts (clear IEN) or disallow interrupts (set IEN) • At the end of each instruction cycle the CPU checks IEN and IST. If either is equal to zero, control continues with the next instruction. If both = 1, the interrupt is handled. • Interrupt micro-operations: • SPSP – 1 (Decrement stack pointer) • M[SP]  PCc Push PC onto stack • INTACK  1 Enable interrupt acknowledge • PC VAD Transfer vector address to PC • IEN 0 Disable further interrupts • Go to fetch next instruction

16. JMP DISK Program to service magnetic disk. JMP PRINTER Program to service line printer. JMP READER JMP KEYBOARD Program to service character reader. Main program Program to service Keyboard. Stack Software Routines for handling Interrupts • Software routines used to service interrupt requests and control interrupt hardware registers. • Each device has its own service program reached through a jump instruction stored at the assigned vector address. • Example: Keyboard sets interrupt bit whilst CPU is executing instruction at location 749. • At the end of the instruction, 750 is pushed onto the stack, the VAD for the keyboard is taken off the bus and placed into the PC. • Control is passed to the keyboard routine. • Once completed, PC is replaced with original address of next instruction (750)

17. Interconnection Structures • Memory: Outputs data. Inputs read, write, and timing signals, addresses, and data. • I/O Module. Outputs data & interrupt signals. Inputs control signals, data, and addresses. • CPU: Outputs address, control signals, and data. Inputs instructions data, and interrupt signals.

18. Bus Interconnection • Communication pathway connecting two or more devices. • Shared transmission medium - usually broadcast. • Typically 50 – 100s of separate lines divided into three functional groups: • Data lines • At this level ‘data’ and ‘instruction’ are synonymous. • Width is a key determinant of performance.(Example: 32 bit words, data bus 16 bits  2 cycles to transmit one word). • Address lines • Identify source or destination of data (ie address in memory) • Width determines maximum memory capacity of system (ie 8080 has 16 bit address  64K address space). Control lines • Control lines • Control and timing signals (read, write, ack, clock)

19. Bus Interconnection • Parallel lines on circuit boards • Ribbon cables • Strip connectors on mother boards • Sets of wires

20. Single Bus Problems • Lots of devices on one bus leads to: • Propagation delays • Long data paths mean that co-ordination of bus use can adversely affect performance • If aggregate data transfer approaches bus capacity • Most modern systems have at least 4 busses to solve this problem: • Processor bus • Cache busDedicated bus for accessing system cache. • Local I/O busHigh speed I/O bus for connecting performance critical peripherals such as high-speed networks, disk storage devices. • Standard I/O bus Connects slower peripherals such as mouse & modems etc.

21. Traditional ISA (with Cache)

22. High Performance Architecture

23. Elements of Bus Design • Type • Dedicated vs. Multiplexed • Dedicated by functionality ie address vs. data or dedication to a physical subset of components. • Arbitration Method • Only one module can have control of the bus at any one time. • Centralized vs. Distributed • Timing • Synchronous vs. Asynchronous • Bus Width • Address • Data • Data Transfer Type • Read, Write, Read-modify-write, Read-after-write, Block

24. Bus Arbitration • Hardware arbitration • Serial arbitration – daisy chain • Parallel arbitration • Dynamic arbitration algorithmsSystem can change the priority of the devices during normal operation. • Time slice – fixed length time slice of bus time offered sequentially to each processor in round robin fashion. • Polling – address of each device in turn placed on polling lines. A device may activate bus busy if it is being polled. • LRU – Least recently used. • FIFO – First in first out. • Rotating Daisy-chain – dynamic extension of the daisy chain. Bus arbiter 1 Bus arbiter 2 Bus arbiter 3 Bus arbiter 4 Priority Encoder Bus Ready 2 X 4 Decoder Hardware for parallel arbitration

25. Synchronous Timing • Occurrence of events on the bus coordinated by a clock. • Bus includes a clock line. • Clock transmits alternating 1s and 0s of equal duration. • A single 1-0 transmission = 1 clock cycle. • All events start at the beginning of a clock cycle.

26. Stable Address Valid Data In Valid Data Out Timing of Synchronous Bus Operations • Place stable address on the line during first clock signal. • Once the address stabilizes an address enable signal is issued. • Read: Read enable signal activated at start of next cycle. • Memory module recognizes address and after 1 cycle places data on bus. • Write is similar but address + data is placed on the bus early.

27. Timing of Asynchronous Bus Operations • Occurrence of one event follows the occurrence of a previous event. • For read – place status and address on the line. • Once stabilized, place a read signal on the bus. • Memory decodes address, and places data on the bus. • Processor sends and “ACK” – all lines can then be dropped.

28. Data Transfer Type • Bus supports various data transfer types • Write (Master to slave) • Read (Slave to master) • Multiplexed address/data bus • Write (Cycle 1 : Address, Cycle 2 : Data) • Read (Cycle 1 : Address, Delay, Cycle ?: Data) • Non-multiplexed address/data bus • Write (Address & Data both sent in same cycle). • Read (Address followed by data once address is stabilized) • Other types of transfer include: • Read after write • Block data transfer (Address + multiple blocks of data)