Chapter 13

1. Chapter 13 Women and Ethnic Groups

2. Diverse Elders With every passing year, the ethnic aged become a larger proportion of aging America. By 2030, minorities will constitute 25% of the elderly population. According to epidemiologists, race, location and income help predict longevity.

3. Population Diversity

4. Ethnicity Involves a culture and an internalized heritage Results in a social status Influences the composition and function of support systems Differences exist between ethnic groups, but also much variation within groups

5. Minorities Are identified by language, physical characteristics, or cultural characteristics Have experienced unequal treatment based on those characteristics in certain segments of society

6. Women

7. Elderly Women Sexism is compounded by ageism. Women still don’t have equality in work, politics, or romance. Roles for older women have been historically narrow, but are broadening. Women are more comfortable reaching out and accepting help from each other, books and seminars, and counseling services.

8. Women’s Financial Status Poverty among unmarried women is three to four times higher than that of their married counterparts. Over 50% of 65+ women would live in poverty if it weren’t for Social Security. Among unmarried older women, 48% of their total income comes from Social Security, compared to 30% of couples’ income.

9. Reasons Older Women are More Likely to be Poor Lower wage histories—Women earn, on average 76% of what men earn, which leaves less money to invest for retirement. Lower retirement income—Women are less likely to be vested in retirement plans. Vulnerability of divorced women—Likelihood of remarriage is lower for women than for men. Lack of financial planning skills—Managing money was traditionally left to men.

10. Reasons Older Women are More Likely to be Poor (con’t) Longevity of women—Women live longer than men and need more retirement money. Need for public benefits—Women are more likely to need public services. Caregiving responsibilities—Women are more likely to leave employment to perform caregiving. Inadequate housing—Affordable housing is difficult for women to find.

11. Middle-Aged Boomer Women Gender pay gaps lead to lower retirement incomes. Divorce rates are higher for the Boomer generation. Women are less likely to remarry, so a cohort of divorced women is now entering later life.

12. Single, Widowed, and Divorced Older Women More than 25% of women aged 65 and older who live alone or with nonrelatives live below the poverty level. Only 8% of those living with their husbands are in poverty. Never-married women tend to have greater retirement incomes than divorced or widowed women.

13. Widows and Divorced Women For widows, Social Security benefits decrease after the death of the husband. Widowhood tends to decrease living standards by 18%. There is limited opportunity for widows to remarry, even less likely with increasing age. The socioeconomic well-being of divorced women is significantly lower than that of married, single, or widowed women. COBRA benefits keep health insurance for up to 3 years after separation, widowhood or divorce.

14. Upgrading the Financial Status of Older Women Being removed from the paid labor force (for pregnancy or caregiving) decreases Social Security and pension benefits. Options include granting caregiver credits, expanding special minimum benefits, and increasing benefits for the lower-earning spouse. Younger women are more likely to plan for retirement than women have been in the past.

15. Double Standard of Aging The double standard of aging for women emphasizes beauty and youth dictating their self-worth, while the standard for a man is much less strict. Our culture has sees older women as sexually invisible and as objects of pity. The youth culture exerts an intense social pressure for women to remain young.

16. Exploitation of Women’s Fears Age terrorism: successful exploitation of women’s fears of growing older Late midlife astonishment: a developmental crisis in which women aged 50 to 60 work through society’s devaluation of their physical appearance For women who do not transition well from mid-life to old age, low self-esteem, poor body image and depression can result.

17. Institutionalized Racism and an Aging Population • Not until 1967 were antimiscegenation laws (prohibiting sexual relations, cohabiting, interbreeding or marriage between people of different races) struck down by the Supreme Court. • Older ethnic minorities have dealt with prejudice and discrimination all their lives. • President Barack Obama’s multiracial heritage signifies a sea change in U.S. attitudes.

18. African Americans The largest minority group among older Americans African Americans constitute 8.3% of the older population. That percentage is expected to increase to 11% by the year 2050.

19. Income and Housing Economic security is improving for older Americans. Social Security benefits provide the foundation for retirement income for older African Americans. As comparatively well-off African Americans move to better neighborhoods, they leave behind an “underclass” of chronic welfare recipients, unemployed, high school dropouts.

20. Income and Housing, cont. Elders in inner cities cope with deteriorating neighborhoods, high crime rates, and the threat of violence. African Americans are less likely to have adequate housing. African Americans are more likely to be admitted to nursing homes than whites.

21. Income and Housing, cont. • A small percentage of retired African Americans are from the upper class. • The number of middle class retired African Americans is rising. • The poverty rate for older African Americans is 23%, more than twice the rate for all older adults. • The difference has decreased somewhat in recent years. • Unemployment rates are higher for African Americans than for whites.

22. Health Care and Life Expectancy African American life expectancy is 70.2 years compared to an average of 76.5 years for all population groups. The difference is even greater among men. The differences disappear if these variables are held constant: marital status, income, education, family size. Low social status and income result in inadequate health care, repressed negative emotions, and hypertension.

23. Health Care and Life Expectancy • The most common health issues faced by older African Americans are: hypertension, arthritis and heart disease. • More African Americans are now covered by health insurance, which should help their health statuses in the future. • Older African Americans are less likely than their white counterparts to reach out for help.

24. Family and Social Relationships African Americans are more likely to value familism—a notion of family extending beyond the immediate household. Family network roles are flexible and interchangeable. Grandmothers and aunts often help raise children. Older family members are valued and respected. Religion is an important source of support, both spiritually and socially.

25. Hispanic Americans One of the obstacles preventing Hispanic elders from being understood and served is the lack of a clear-cut definition of who they are. The census uses Spanish heritage (having Spanish blood or antecedents) and Spanish origin (having been born in a Spanish-speaking country or having antecedents who were).

26. Demographics In 2007, Hispanic people made up 6.6% of the older population, and is expected to be 20% by 2050. Hispanics come from many different countries in Central and South America, as well as the Caribbean, with different immigration histories The percentage of Hispanic elderly men and women living alone is lower than that of the general population.

27. Demographics (con’t) Hispanics are twice as likely than the general population to live with other relatives. The older Hispanic population more than doubled between 1990 and 2010, and is expected to increase by 11 times by 2050. Strong family ties contribute to lower utilization of social services and community resources among Hispanics.

28. Hispanics’ Minority Status Over 17% live below the poverty level. More likely to have inadequate health care; less likely to be covered at work High illiteracy rates and language barriers in society Low occupational levels with few benefits, including retirement and health

29. Migration Patterns The two largest Hispanic subgroups are Mexican and Puerto Rican. The majority of older Mexican Americans were born in the United States. Foreign born elders may need more social and medical services. Hispanic American immigrants tend to live in urban areas. Most live in four states: California, Texas, Florida, and New York.

30. Utilization of Services Hispanic elders are more likely to be isolated and suspicious of governmental services. They tend to be undercounted by the Census. Hispanics tend to have considerable family support. The more acculturated the family, the less extensive the family interaction.

31. Ethnic Variations Mexican Americans are more likely to participate in senior citizen clubs than other Hispanics. High ethnic population density correlates with higher rates of utilization. Cuban elders are more likely to be politically active.

32. Asian Americans Asian Americans comprise about 5% of the total population. Over 6% of them are 65 and older. Come from many different countries, languages and cultures Most older Asian Americans are concentrated in California, Hawaii, New York, Illinois, Washington, and Massachusetts. Chinese Americans are the largest Asian group.

33. Historical Discrimination • The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 made all Chinese immigration illegal. It varied over the years but was not repealed until 1943. • Anti-Japanese laws included: • Japanese Alien Land Law of 1913 • Executive Order of 1942 providing for interment • Public Law 95-507 excluding Asians as a protected minority

34. Filial Piety A custom demanding that family members respect and care for elders Some Asian groups have kept to this custom more closely than others. As children and grandchildren become more acculturated, intergenerational tensions result.

35. Japanese Americans The bulk of Japanese immigration took place 1870 - 1924. Men came first and later sent for wives from Japan. Issei (the first generation)—now mostly women Nissei (the second generation)—more likely to be integrated into the American mainstream and doing well economically and socially Nearly half of Japanese elders live with a child.

36. Chinese Americans Disproportionate share of Chinese American and Filipino American elders are men due to early immigration patterns and legal restrictions. The Chinese American pattern is for adult children to bring a widowed parent into their household. Increasing proportions of Chinese elders are second generation. They are more educated and acculturated and have a more comfortable financial situation.

37. Southeast Asian Americans Southeast Asians (Vietnamese, Laotians, and Cambodians) have a special respect for their elders, especially fathers and grandfathers. Extended family continues to be important. California has the largest number of Southeast Asians. Older first generation immigrants suffered culture shock and poverty. Greater assimilation by the younger generation results in conflict.

38. Native Americans Native American elders constitute a very small percentage of American society. They are the most socially and economically deprived of all ethnic groups in the United States. American Indians on reservations and in rural areas experience extremely high unemployment and substandard housing. Poverty in general is more common than problems specific to the elderly.

39. Cultural Uniformity and Diversity Native American tribes share a common reverence for the land and animals. Family structure, values, and norms are diverse. The position of older people varies from tribe to tribe. A history of maltreatment by the U.S. government left Native Americans has compromised much of their cultural heritage.

40. Population Data For decades, despite rapid growth in the population of the country as a whole, the Native American population declined. Most older Native Americans live on reservations. Native Americans are the most rural of any ethnic group. Young people are likely to live in urban areas.

41. Education, Employment, and Income The educational attainment of Native Americans is behind that of whites. A sizeable percentage of unemployed older Native Americans cannot read or write. Among youths, the school dropout rate is nearly twice the national average. Historically, government operated schools were poorly equipped, poorly run, and designed to eliminate the Native culture.

42. Health Characteristics Native American elders are more likely to suffer from chronic illnesses and disabilities than any other ethnic aged groups. They have the lowest life expectancy. The maintenance of strongly held cultural beliefs and practices is believed to result in reduced stress levels among older, traditional tribal people. Native Americans are more likely to die from diabetes, alcoholism, influenza, pneumonia, suicide, and homicide than any other group.

43. Improving the Status of Ethnic Elders Minority groups vary in their current and future statuses. Differences in life expectancy are due in large part to risks associated with lifestyle. Education is potentially helpful for alleviating the problems. Services are important but work history has the greatest impact on the experience of aging.

44. The Administration of Aging Organizations The National Caucus and Center on Black Aged The National Indian Council on Aging Asociacion Nacional Pro Personas Mayores National Pacific/Asian Resource Center on Aging