Psychological Perspective

1. Psychological Perspective Adam Barger, Beverly Becker, Michelle Boyd, Kirstin Byrd, & Elizabeth Hobson EPPL 604

2. General Outline for Presentation Definition: a. The science of mind and behavior b. The study of the mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity. • Behaviorism • Cognitive Psychology • Social Psychology • Industrial-Organizational Psychology

3. Objectives • At the conclusion of the presentation, participants will be able to … • identify and describe three types of psychology. • recognize four relevant theories in psychology. • apply at least one theory to a relevant educational problem.

4. Behaviorism

5. Stimulus Response Significant value given to behavior and actions Little to no value given to thought processes

6. John B. Watson • Desired to study only what was observable (behaviors). • Emotions and behaviors learned in the same way as skills or tasks. • Influenced by earlier experiments in classical conditioning. (Pavlov)

7. B.F. Skinner • Built on ideas of Watson; theories came to be known as hyper-behaviorism • Advocated using observable behavior to study all aspects of human thought and action • Profound effect on education and learning theory • Focused on reinforcement

8. Behaviorism in Education • Passive learning • Rote learning • Positive reinforcement • A change in behavior indicates learning

9. Research Examples • Miranda (2009) • Using behaviorist educational strategies to foster success in community college classes • DeMartino (1999) • Instructional design models and learning models for education (including non k-12) draw upon behaviorist theories (as well as constructivist and cognitive)

10. Conclusions • Varying views on whether behaviorism opposes cognitive psychology and constructivism. • Some researchers and practitioners see resurgence of behaviorist strategies in education. • Studies examining behaviors often account for the basic stimulus/response pattern

11. Cognitive Psychology

12. Defining Cognitive Psychology • UlricNeisser’s 1967 definition: “Cognitive psychology refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.” • Often referred to as: human information processing • Cognitive psychology has had major influences on: • Educational psychology • Social psychology • Applied psychology Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

13. The Roots of Cognitive Psychology • Has roots in philosophy and physiology, which both seek to understand the human mind. • Plato and Aristotle have affected modern thinking in psychology. • They disagreed on how to investigate ideas. • Plato was a rationalist . “The route to knowledge is through logical analysis.” • Aristotle was an empiricist. “We acquire knowledge via empirical evidence – experience and observation.” By the 1970’s, it was a major field of psychology with a set of distinctive research method. Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

14. Goals of Research in Cognitive Psychology Observe behavior to make inferences about underlying explanations of behavior (thought, language, meaning, and imagery) Seek formal explanations to the nature and function of mental processes Seek a more complex explanation than stimulus response (behaviorist) Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

15. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology • Laboratory/controlled experiments • Psychobiological research • Self-reports • Case studies • Naturalistic observations • Computer simulations and artificial intelligence Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

16. Cognitive Psychology: Noam Chomsky • 1960’s • Our understanding of language is constrained not so much by what we have heard, but rather, by an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that all humans possess. (Nature) • He emphasizes a more “rationalistic” technique • He and other linguists demonstrated that language acquisition was more a complex process than what behaviorism accounts for. Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

17. Cognitive Psychology: Herbert A. Simon • Professor of computer science and psychology at Carnegie-Mellon University. • 1972: (Pioneer with Allen Newell) Proposed a detailed models of human thinking and problem solving from the most basic levels to the most complex. • Constructed and tested computer models that simulated human thought. • Major advocate of thinking-aloud protocols as a means of studying cognitive processing. Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

18. Main concepts • Schema are mental frameworks for information (Simon) • Levels of processing: memory is a by-product of processing type: Encoding and retrieval • Constructive memory: created by learners as they confront new situations • Social influences: motivation, self awareness Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

19. Themes for education • Learning is constructive • Mental frameworks organize memory: schema, concepts, scripts • Extended practice is needed to develop cognitive skills • Metacognition: self reflective and directed learners • Motivation and beliefs are important • Social interaction is fundamental Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

20. Useful Theories in Education Cognitive Load Theory: Learning is constrained by limited processing capacity George Miller (1956): Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two about what makes it from short to long term memory

21. More Theories Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory (1997): Learning is the result of interacting variables: personal, behavioral, and environmental. Example: Self-efficacy, outcome expectancy Attribution Theory: how individuals explain events in their lives and why they respond differently Self Regulated Learning Theory: ability to control all aspects of one’s learning from advance planning to performance evaluation (Pintrich, 2000; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; Winne, 1995).

22. Social Cognition Based on Lev Vygotsky’s Mind in Society (1978): Zone of Proximal Development. Children are apprenctices in thinking. Information processing alone does not account for cognitive development.

23. Social Psychology

24. Definitions • According to Allport (1985), social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.

25. An Intersection • Social Psychology lies at the intersection of Psychology and Sociology • Psychology- social psychologists are trained in the rigorous experimental methods of psychology • Sociology- social psychologists share a sociological focus on the behavior of the groups, interactions and exchanges, as well as the individual/group in the larger context of social structures and processes.

26. Intersection cont’d • Psychological Social Psychology • A more positivist approach • Concrete • Sociological Social Psychology • A more constructivist approach, looks at societal constructions like family, parenthood etc., within a specific time frame or historical dimension • Sees institutions like family or parenthood as constantly changing, therefore it has a more fluid approach to methodology

27. OEMA Social Psychology Created by Patricia Popp, 1998 (amended by Finnegan, 2008)

28. Scope of Psychological Research

29. Topics Covered by Social Psychology • Group behavior • Social perception • Leadership • Nonverbal behavior • Conformity • Aggression • Prejudice • How social influences, perception, and interaction are vital to understanding social behavior

30. History • Kurt Lewin • Gordon Allport

31. History • Stanley Milgram • Leon Festinger

32. History • Norman Triplett 1898 • Perception, cognition, attitudes, small groups • During WWII- persuasion, propaganda, US military • After WWII- gender and racial discrimination • During the 1960s- cognitive dissonance, bystander effect, aggression • During the 1970s- debate on ethics, culture

33. Since the 1980s • Ethical standards now regulate research • There is greater pluralism • Multiculturalism has emerged as a perspective • Attribution, social cognition, and self-concepts have been the focus of research in recent years

34. Examples of Social Psychological Theories • Attribution theory • Cognitive dissonance • Drive theory • Evolutionary Psychology • Social Learning • Schemata theory • Self-Perception theory • Social Exchange theory • System justification theory • Triangular theory of Love

35. Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Phenomena • Intrapersonal topics include: attitudes, persuasion, social cognition, self-concept, and cognitive dissonance • Interpersonal topics include: social influence, group dynamics, social relations, and interpersonal attraction

36. Methodology • Experimental- controlled • Correlational • Observational • On the sociological side of social psychology researchers also use qualitative methods

37. Famous Social Psychological Experiments • Asch’s experiments on conformity in small groups • Festinger’s cognitive dissonance experiment • Milgram’s study on obeying authority using feigned electric shock • Bandura’sBobo doll experiment on child aggression • Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment

38. Topics Addressed by Social Psychology • Social Cognition • Attitudes • Aggression/Violence • Prosocial Behavior • Bystander Effect • Prejudice/Discrimination • Self and Social Identity • Group Behavior

39. Perspectives in Social Psychology • Sociocultural- importance of social norms and culture • Evolutionary- social behaviors developed through genetics and inheritance • Social Learning- importance of unique experiences in family, school, community, etc. • Social-Cognitive- information processing model of social behavior, how we notice, interpret, and judge the behavior of others

40. View of Social Psychology Dr. C. George Boeree (1999). Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/socpsy.html

41. Applications of Social Psychology • Health • Law • Law Enforcement • Business • Military • Schools

42. Activity • http://college.cengage.com/psychology/brehm/social_psychology/5e/students/netlabs.html - Psychology Today-The Cultural Context

43. Industrial - Organizational (I-O) Psychology A Branch of Psychology

44. What is Industrial – Organizational (I-O) Psychology? Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the scientific study of the workplace. Rigor and methods of psychology are applied to issues of critical relevance to business such as …

45. Critical Issues in the Workplace • Selection • Training • Coaching • Assessment • Performance • Talent management • Work-life balance • Organizational development

46. Major Ways I/O Psychology is Used • Personnel psychology • Training • Motivation and leadership • Engineering psychology

47. I-O Psychology Behavioral Psych

48. Historical Figures in I-O Psychology Walter Dill Scott Hugo Munsterburg

49. Historical Figures in I-O Psychology

50. What Theories are Referenced in I-O Psychology ? • Needs Theory (Atkinson & McClelland) – motivation is driven by the strength of intrinsic needs: achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and dominance • Expectancy Theory (Vroom) – motivation is a combination of perceived attractiveness of future outcomes and the likelihood that one’s actions will lead to the outcome Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.