World War I

1. World War I The US in World War I: 1914-1918

2. Causes of World War I • Militarism – European nations built up large armies & navies to protect their national interests. • Alliances – Nations created a web of alliances & pledged to come to one another’s defense in the event of an attack. • Imperialism – The Great Powers competed for territories in Africa, Asia, & the Middle East. • Nationalism – Movements such as Pan-Germanism led to ill-feelings among nations.

3. Causes of World War I • Immediate Cause – The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand & his wife Sophie set off a chain of war declarations throughout Europe. • Allied Powers – Great Britain, France, Russia • Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary

4. Precarious US Neutrality • President Wilson issued a Proclamation of Neutrality after the start of the war in 1914. • Most Americans were anti-German from the outset of the war. • Threatened by the rapid rise of Germany • Angered by Germany’s attack on Belgium • Outraged by stories reported in the British press

5. US Money Flows to Europe • British & French war orders served to boost the US economy in the early years of the war. • US trade with the Allies reached $2.4 billion. • In addition, J.P. Morgan & other bankers lent the Allies over $3 billion

6. The Lusitania Incident • Germany announced in 1915 that it would use submarines to sink ships carrying “contraband.” • The submarine was a new war technology that did not fit existing international law. • Wilson warned Germany that it would be held to “strict accountability” for any attacks on US vessels or citizens. • The British passenger liner, Lusitania, was sunk off the coast of Ireland on 7 May 1915 – 128 Americans die.

7. The Lusitania Incident

8. The Sussex Ultimatum • In March 1916, Germany torpedoed the French passenger steamer, the Sussex. • Wilson & Germany agreed to an uneasy truce: • Germany agreed not to sink passenger & merchant ships without warning. • The US agreed to persuade the Allies to end their naval blockade.

9. The Election of 1916 • Republican – Charles Evans Hughes • Platform – Condemned the lower tariff, assaults on trusts, & Wilson’s indecisiveness in dealing with Mexico & Germany • Democrat – Woodrow Wilson • Slogan – “He kept us out of war.”

10. The Election of 1916

11. US Entry into the War • In January 1917, Wilson called on European leaders to reach a “peace without victory” in order to end the war. • In that same month, Germany announced a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare. • All ships, including American ones, would be sunk. • Justified the policy using the Sussex pledge as the US had not persuaded the Allies to end their blockade.

12. US Entry into the War • Wilson broke diplomatic relations with Germany but refused to move toward war unless Germany attacked US lives & property. • Asked Congress for the authority to arm US merchant ships, but Midwestern Senators blocked the measure. • Used the Zimmerman Telegram to get Congressional approval for the measure. • Germany had proposed an alliance with Mexico – join against the US & win back TX, NM, & AZ. • Americans, especially westerners, were outraged.

13. US Entry into the War • Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war on 2 April 1917 – accepted 4 days later. • Wilson sought to instill idealism in order to inspire Americans to fight. In doing so, he claimed: • US was not fighting for profit or territorial conquest • US wanted to shape an international order in which democracy could flourish – “Make the world safe for democracy” • These ideals were essential to Wilson’s Fourteen Points.

14. US Entry into the War

15. Committee of Public Information • The Committee of Public Information (CPI) was created to sell America on the war & to sell the world on Wilsonian war aims. • Headed by George Creel • Established voluntary censorship of the press • Published propaganda, including posters & movies • Set up volunteer Liberty Leagues in every community • Urged members to spy on their neighbors & report any suspicious words or actions

16. Restrictions on Civil Liberties • Anti-German hysteria swept the US, largely due to Creel Committee propaganda. • Resulted in rampant rumor of spying & sabotage • German courses were discontinued in many schools • Orchestras stopped playing Wagner & Beethoven • Food items were renamed

17. Restrictions on Civil Liberties • Espionage Act of 1917 • Provided fines & imprisonment for persons making false statements, aiding the enemy, inciting rebellion in the military, or obstructing draft recruitment • Sedition Act of 1918 • Forbade any criticism of the government, flag, or uniform • Targeted Socialists & members of the IWW, including Eugene V. Debs & “Big Bill” Haywood

18. Restrictions on Civil Liberties • Schenck v. United States • Upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act • Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. ruled that Congress could limit free speech when words represented “a clear & present danger…that…will bring about…evils that Congress has the right to prevent.” • For example, a person could not “cry fire in a crowded theater.”

19. Mobilizing Industry • The nation’s economy was not originally geared for war. • Bernard Baruch was appointed to head the War Industries Board in March 1918. • Sought to control raw materials, production, prices, & labor relations. • Never really had much power & was disbanded within days of the armistice. • US businesses opposed government controls • Democrats lost power in the 1918 Congressional elections

20. Mobilizing Labor • US workers were mobilized with the slogan, “Labor Will Win the War.” • Over 1 million women entered the workforce. • Worked in munitions plants, ran elevators, delivered messages, etc. • Prompted Wilson to endorse women’s suffrage as a “vitally necessary war measure.” • The 19th Amendment was ratified in 1920

21. Mobilizing Labor • Thousands of African Americans migrated north to work in war-related factories. • The War Department issued a “work or fight” rule in 1918 • W.E.B. DuBoissaw the war effort as a way to improve life for African Americans • Led to race riots in 26 cities

22. Mobilizing Labor

23. Mobilizing Labor • The National War Labor Board was created to oversee labor disputes during the war. • William Howard Taft was chairman & Samuel Gompers served as a board member. • Essentially prohibited strikes, while encouraging progressive such as higher wages, an 8-hour work day, & unionization. • Union membership increased from 2.5 million in 1916 to 4 million in 1919. • The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) used labor sabotage – including 6,000 strikes – to undermine the war effort.

24. Mobilizing the Economy • The Food Administration • Headed by Herbert Hoover • Relied on voluntary compliance • Called for self-denial to support the war effort • Proclaimed “Wheatless Wednesdays” & “Meatless Tuesdays” • Encouraged “Victory Gardens” • The 18th Amendment was ratified in 1919 • Resulted in increased farm production & food exports to the Allies

25. Mobilizing the Army • Wilson proposed universal male conscription to raise an army. • The Selective Service Act passed in May 1917 • Required registration of all men ages 18-45 • Did not allow men to purchase exemptions or hire substitutes • Increased the size of the army from 200,000 to over 4 million • 400,000 African Americans served in segregated units • 11,000 women served in the navy

26. The US – Over There • The War at Sea • US & Britain began a convoy system in July 1917 • Dramatically decreased losses from U-Boat attacks • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk • Took Russia out of the war & ceded vast territories to the Central Powers • Allowed Germany to re-deploy its divisions to the front in France

27. The US – Over There The Western Front: France • Germany launched a massive offensive on the Western Front in the Spring 1918 • The American Expeditionary Force – under the command of General John Pershing – were sent to France in May 1918 • Initially used as replacements in the Allied armies • Played a key role in stopping the German advance to Paris during the Second Battle of the Marne • Chateau-Thierry • Belleau Wood

28. The US – Over There The Western Front: France • In September, the AEF participated in the Battle of the Argonne Forest – the final Allied offensive of the war • Marked the largest battle thus far in American history • Fought for 47 days & engaged 1.2 million American soldiers • Suffered 10% casualties • It was here that Sergeant Alvin York captured 132 German prisoners

29. The US – Over There The End of the War • By October 1918, German generals warned their government of their imminent defeat • The German government turned to a seemingly moderate Wilson & sought a peace based on his Fourteen Points • Wilson demanded the Kaiser’s removal before an armistice could be negotiated • On 11 November 1918, Germany laid down its arms

30. Versailles Peace Conference • Wilson’s post-war popularity in the world was unprecedented. • Viewed as a savior by millions in Europe • Democrats lost control of Congress in the 1918 elections. • Wilson infuriated Republicans by personally going to the Paris peace conference. • No sitting president had traveled to Europe • Excluded Republicans from the delegation

31. Versailles Peace Conference • Negotiated by the Big Four • US-Wilson, Britain-David Lloyd George, France-Georges Clemenceau, Italy-Vittorio Orlando • European leaders did not embrace Wilson’s ideas • Might foil their imperialistic plans • Wanted to punish Germany • Meanwhile, Europe seemed to be slipping into anarchy

32. Versailles Peace Conference • Wilson’s goals included a world parliament to be known as the League of Nations. • Called on all members to protect the “territorial integrity” & “political independence” of all other members – collective security • Permanent members – US, France, Britain, Italy, & Japan • General Assembly – 42 Allied & neutral countries • Excluded Germany & Russia

33. Treaty of Versailles • Terms of the Treaty of Versailles • Article 231 – War Guilt Clause • Blamed Germany for World War I • Forced Germany to pay reparations totaling $31 billion to the Allies & accept severe military restrictions & loss of territory • Granted self-determination to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Lithuania, & Estonia

34. Treaty of Versailles • Faced significant opposition in the United States • Republicans, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, threatened to kill the treaty if Wilson did not provide provisions for preserving the Monroe Doctrine & a means for the US to leave the League • Weakened Wilson’s bargaining position – final treaty contained only about 4 of the original 14 Points • Gets bogged down in the Senate

35. Treaty of Versailles • Wilson decides to appeal directly to the American people by going on an ambitious speechmaking tour. • Doctors & friends advise him against the tour, but he had become obsessed with the Treaty • Followed by “Irreconcilable Senators” who opposed the Treaty in any form • Wilson collapsed in Colorado on September 25, 1919. • Partially paralyzed by stroke several days later • Did not meet with his cabinet for 7.5 months

36. Lodge Reservations • Henry Cabot Lodge wrote 14 formal reservations to the Treaty. • Preserved Congress’s war-making powers • Wilson rejected the Lodge Reservations & ordered Democrats to vote against the amended Treaty. • Loyal Democrats & “Irreconcilable Senators” voted against the Treaty – 55-39 • US negotiated a separate peace with Germany in July 1919