古希臘早期哲學

1. 古希臘早期哲學

2. 或名「先蘇哲學」Pre-Socratic philosophy 「這條魚是在一次大戰結束後一年捕獲而後放生的」？ • Aristotle 所建構之歷史？

5. 米利都（Milet, Miletus）位於小亞細亞 Ionia地區，乃希臘殖民地。亦為科學、數學（航海…）、 醫學、經濟與文化中心（與中亞、埃及文化接觸頻繁）。 “米利都啟蒙” Thales (624-546 BC) Anaximander (610-547 BC) Anaximenes (585-525 BC) 米利都學派Milesian School, School of Miletus

6. 624-546 BC water is substance Thales

7. 佚聞 • 經濟：曾預言氣候變化，因此輸入橄欖壓榨機 • 政治：曾預言日蝕，因此戰勝Iranians • 科學：曾測量金字塔高度 • 希臘七賢之一

8. 希臘七賢（Seven Sages ） • Solon of Athens – "Nothing in excess" 過猶不及、寧缺勿濫 • Chilon of Sparta – "Know thyself" 認識你自己、撒泡尿照照鏡子 • Thales of Miletus – "To bring surety brings ruin" 求治反亂 Cf. Edmund Burke (1729-17977) • Bias of Priene – "Too many workers spoil the work" 人多口雜、人多難辦事（ vs.人多好辦事 ） • Cleobulus of Lindos – "Moderation is impeccable" 事緩則圓 • Pittacus of Mytilene – "Know thine opportunity" 把握機會、洞燭機先 • Periander of Corinth – “Forethought in all things” 凡事三思、謀定而後動

9. Thales之格言 • Of all things that are, the most ancient is God, for he is uncreated. (岳不群與藍鳳凰之對話） • The most beautiful is the universe, for it is God's. • The greatest is space, for it holds all things. • The swiftest is mind, for it speeds everywhere. • The strongest, necessity, for it masters all. • The wisest, time, for it brings everything to light.

10. water is substance • Thales所問的問題：變化從何而來？ • Thales 之前，希臘人以神話、英雄與擬人化的神來解釋自然現象。 • Thales之改變：from which is everything that exists and from which it first becomes and into which it is rendered at last, its substance remaining under it, but transforming in qualities, that is the element and principle of things that are. • For it is necessary that there be some nature, either one or more than one, from which become the other things of the object being saved... Thales the founder of this type of philosophy says that it is water. • Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance turn into air, slime and earth. It seems clear that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and which surrounded Ocean

11. 610-547 BC Apeiron is substance Anaximander

12. Thales之同鄉與學生 • 製作過世界地圖 • 曾擔任某城邦之領導人

13. Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. • He postulated the apeiron (limitless) as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him.

14. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial （原本的）matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow • （實體不能是對立中之經驗物或有限者）

15. Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron). • The one surviving fragment of Anaximander‘s writing deals with this matter： • “Whence things have their origin, Thence also their destruction happens, According to necessity; For they give to each other justice and recompense（報償）for their injustice In conformity with the ordinance of Time.”生即有滅，斯為必然。償善懲惡，時不寬貸。

16. 585-525 BC Aer is substance Anaximenes

17. He held that the air, with its variety of contents, its universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists. • Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. The process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or cold predominates. In this way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air.

18. Similar condensations produced the sun and stars; and the flaming state of these bodies is due to the velocity of their motions. He states: • “Just as our soul, being air, holds us together（人要一口氣）, so do breath and air encompass the whole world." • It was actually "aer" which he believed to be the common characteristic between all things. "Aer" is the Greek word for a mist rather than just pure air. • 綜合Thales 與Anaximanders

19. Milesian School之意義 • The theoretical human has become a reality. The way of thinking has in its basic form moved away from the mythological thinking (or mythos) and into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or logos). • From now on it is about explaining the universal and the general. Everything in the universe can now be approached by the thoughts of humans. • 開啟「變／不變」之討論

20. 變與不變、一與多、普遍與特殊 • 一或多 • Eleatic School：不變-一-普遍 • Heraclitus：莫不變-多-特殊 • 多-多間關係 • Pythagorean：數字和諧 • Pluralist School：質 • Atomist School of Pluralists：量

21. 570 – 480 BC （約與Anaximenes同時） 波斯征服Ionia後，遷往大希臘，在Elea定居。 詩人，以批評希臘多神教與真理觀著稱 Eleatic School之先驅:Xenophanes

22. 知識論立場 Xenophanes • there actually exists a truth of reality, but that humans as mortals are unable to know it.（生也有涯，知也無涯）Therefore, it is possible to act only on the basis of working hypotheses - we may act as if we knew the truth, as long as we know that this is extremely unlikely. • This aspect of Xenophanes was brought out again by the late Sir Karl Popper and is a basis of Critical rationalism.

23. Xenophanes • Before Xenophanes, the method of the natural philosophers was inductive. That is, their ideas were based on observations of the world. And, their proofs were empirical and direct. However, Xenophanes pointed out that these sorts of ideas were relative. That is, different people had different perceptions of the world; therefore, they had different ideas of the world. Their ideas about the world may be true, but they could not know it. So, according to Xenophanes, we cannot be sure that ideas about the world that are inductively derived are true. That is, we cannot be sure that ideas about the world that are based on our perceptions of the world are true. This posed a problem for the presocratics.

24. Xenophanes • Heraclitus的回答： He looked at what we can all agree to, that all is change. Inductively, if we look at the world, everything changes. • But, this is still induction, based on our perceptions of the world. • Parmemides 的回答：the only truth is that that is deductively determined. Therefore, inductive "truths" are only opinions.

25. 神是人之投射 Xenophanes • The Ethiops say that their gods are flat-nosed and black,While the Thracians say that theirs have blue eyes and red hair.Yet if cattle or horses or lions had hands and could draw,And could sculpture like men, then the horses would draw their godsLike horses, and cattle like cattle; and each they would shapeBodies of gods in the likeness, each kind, of their own

26. Xenophanes • there was only one god -- namely, the world. God is one incorporeal（至神無形）eternal being, and, like the universe, spherical in form（圓融）; that he is of the same nature with the universe, comprehending all things within himself; is intelligent, and pervades all things (泛神論Pan-theism), but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind.

27. There is no evidence that Xenophanes regarded this 'god' with any religious feeling, and all we are told about him (or rather about it) is purely negative. He is quite unlike a man, and has no special organs of sense, but 'sees all over, thinks all over, hears all over' (fr. 24). Further, he does not go about from place to place (fr. 26), but does everything 'without toil (fr. 25).

28. Xenophanes • if there had ever been a time when nothing existed, nothing could ever have existed. Whatever is, always has been from eternity, without deriving its existence from any prior principles. • Nature, he believed, is one and without limit; that what is one is similar in all its parts, else it would be many; that the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe is immutable and incapable of change.

29. 539-469 BC 或為Elea貴族 On Nature餘150行殘篇論aletheia 與 doxa Eleatic School之主角:Parmenides

30. 有 vs. 沒有 • there are two ways of inquiry: that it is, that it is not. He said that the latter argument is never feasible because nothing can not be: • For never shall this prevail, that things that are not are.

31. For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can never predominate. You must debar your thought from this way of search, nor let ordinary experience in its variety force you along this way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye, sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound, and the tongue, to rule; but (you must) judge by means of the Reason (Logos) the much-contested proof which is expounded by me.

32. ca. 490BC-430BC? SOPHIST之先驅 Zenoof Elea

33. Zeno’s Paradox • Achilles and the tortoise • "You can never catch up.“ • In a race, the quickest runner can never overtake the slowest, since the pursuer must first reach the point whence the pursued started, so that the slower must always hold a lead • The dichotomy paradox • "You cannot even start.“ • That which is in locomotion must arrive at the half-way stage before it arrives at the goal. • The arrow paradox • "You cannot even move.“ • If everything when it occupies an equal space is at rest, and if that which is in locomotion is always occupying such a space at any moment, the flying arrow is therefore motionless.

34. 540-475BC Ephesus in Ionia The weeping philosopher Heraclitus：變動

35. 哭與笑 • Democritus had gone insane and was laughing at everything obsessively, including weddings and funerals. Hippocrates found him surrounded by books and the bodies of animals which he had dissected to examine their bile. He said he was investigating the causes of insanity. On being questioned as to why he found the matters at which he laughed comical, he replied with the vanity argument, that all is "folly and baseness" and a waste of time, which is essentially what Heraclitus had said. Hippocrates gave him a "passing" on mental health and went away. • 八大山人？

36. CHANGE is real, and stability illusory • the nature of everything is change itself

37. 殘篇 • Everything flows and nothing is left (unchanged), orEverything flows and nothing stands still, orAll things are in motion and nothing remains still. • “By cosmic rule, as day yields night, so winter summer, war peace, plenty famine. All things change. Air penetrates the lump of myrrh, until the joining bodies die and rise again in smoke called incense."

38. 殘篇 • “Men do not know how that which is drawn in different directions harmonises with itself. The harmonious structure of the world depends upon opposite tension like that of the bow （弓） and the lyre（琴）." • "This universe, which is the same for all, has not been made by any god or man, but it always has been, is, and will be an ever-living fire, kindling itself by regular measures and going out by regular measures“

39. 最著名的話 • "Ποταμοῖς τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἐμβαίνομέν τε καὶ οὐκ ἐμβαίνομεν, εἶμέν τε καὶ οὐκ εἶμεν.""We both step and do not step in the same rivers. We are and are not.“ • Or：”No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same river and he is not the same man .“

40. Logos • The idea of the logos（道）is also credited to him, as he proclaims that everything originates out of the logos. Further, Heraclitus said "I am as I am not", and "He who hears not me but the logos will say: All is one." • 此亦一是非、彼亦一是非

41. Pythagoras of Samos Between 580 and 572 BC –between 500-490 BC Ionia 520 in Crotona established a secret religious society Pythagoreanism

42. 名字： Pyth-ian乃Delphi之Apollo神廟， agor-意為「說」， "He spoke (agor-) the truth no less than did the Pythian (Pyth-)." • 與「佛」同義，皆有「大覺」、「智慧」之意。 • Pythagorean theorem: a2＋b2=c2 • 早年曾遊歷西亞與埃及，或因此而有宗教與數學傾向

43. number is the ruler of forms and ideas and the cause of gods and demons. • Pythagoras and his students believed that everything was related to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate reality and, through mathematics, everything could be predicted and measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles.

44. Knowledge of the essence of being can be found in the form of numbers. If this is taken a step further, one can say that because mathematics is an unseen essence, the essence of being is an unseen characteristic that can be encountered by the study of mathematics.

45. One of Pythagoras' beliefs was that the essence of being is number. Thus, being relies on stability of all things that create the universe. • Things like health relied on a stable proportion of elements; too much or too little of one thing causes an imbalance that makes a being unhealthy.

46. 靈魂轉世：the soul were located in the brain and not the heart. He himself claimed to have lived four lives that he could remember in detail, and heard the cry of his dead friend in the bark of a dog. • 苦行僧、食素、冥想（靜坐）、戒律

47. 到神廟時要先敬神，路途中不要說話，不要做與日常生活有關的事物。到神廟時要先敬神，路途中不要說話，不要做與日常生活有關的事物。 • 切莫穿著鞋向神獻祭和禮拜。 • 避免走大路，要走小道。 • 聽命於神靈，最重要的是保持緘默。 • 切勿用鐵器撥火。 • 幫助負重的人，不要幫卸重的人。（雪裡送炭 vs.錦上添花） • 穿鞋從右腳開始，洗腳從左腳開始。 • 不准碰獻祭的魚。 • 從家中出門後切莫向後看，因為復仇女神緊跟著你。 • 飼養白公雞，但切忌以白公雞祭祀。 • 切勿讓燕子在屋簷下築巢。 • 切莫吃豆子、心臟。 • 桌上掉下來的東西不要吃。

48. 493-433 BC citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily Pluralist School:Empedocles

49. the origin of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements • all matter is made up of four elements: water, earth, air and fire. Empedocles called these the four "roots"; the term "element" (στοιχεῖον) • Apart from these four roots, Empedocles postulated something called Love (φιλία) to explain the attraction of different forms of matter, and of something called Strife (νεῖκος) to account for their separation • Love and Strife explain their variation and harmony

50. 500-438 BC Ionia， 定居雅典 Pluralist School:Anaxagoras