Arthur M. Winer, Ph.D. Professor of Environmental Health Sciences School of Public Health

1. TRANSPORTATION-RELATED AIR POLLUTANT EXPOSURE:Implications for Regional Policies and Public Health Arthur M. Winer, Ph.D. Professor of Environmental Health Sciences School of Public Health University of California, Los Angeles Transportation/Land-Use/Environment Symposium October 16-18, 2005 Lake Arrowhead

2. INTRODUCTION • The contribution of transportation-related pollutant emissions to regional photochemical smog has been recognized for many decades • In contrast, only more recently have the exposures and health impacts due to localized transportation-related emissions been characterized • This new characterization resulted from • A paradigm shift in air pollutant exposure assessment • New physical measurements and health studies in close proximity to roadways and other transportation facilities

3. PARADIGM SHIFT IN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT “The Place Makes The Poison” Kirk Smith UC Berkeley School of Public Health

4. EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLE Measure air pollutants in the “microenvironments”where people spend their time (rather than where air monitoring stations long distances away are measuring outdoor air).

5. EXAMPLES OF TRANSPORTATION-RELATED MICROENVIRONMENTS • Near-roadway environments • Passenger vehicle compartments • School buses • Near-roadway structures (schools pre-schools, homes) • Proximity to ports, airports, rail, etc.

8. HEALTH IMPACTS OF VEHICLE EXHAUST • Over the past decade, dozens of studies from all over the world have shown that spending time in close proximity to heavy traffic, especially diesel truck traffic, is associated with a wide range of morbidity effects, as well as increased mortality • Diesel exhaust particulate (DEP) declared a toxic air contaminant by ARB in 1998

9. RELATIVE POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS vs DISTANCE FROM I-405 FREEWAY(Zhu et al., 2002a)

10. 710 Freeway

11. Relative Particle Number, Particle Mass, Black Carbon, and CO Concentrations vs. Downwind Distance from I-710 (Zhu et al., 2002b)

12. ULTRA-FINE PARTICLES (UFP) • Because of dilution (and coagulation) UFPs behave like a “local” source • Central station monitoring is not useful for estimating UFP exposure and dose • A 1-hr exposure on a freeway exceeds 23 hrs of exposure away from freeways

13. Influence of Vehicle Type and Exhaust Location on Exposure in Following Vehicle (Sources: Rodes et al., 1997; Fruin et al., 2004)

14. IN-VEHICLE EXPOSURE • Highly elevated roadway pollutant concentrations have profound implications for in-vehicle exposures: • In-vehicle concentrations of black carbon can be many times those in “background” ambient air • Ultra-fine particles are up to ten times higher on roadways compared to “background” air • The 6% of the day spent in a vehicle can account for ~1/3 to >half of daily exposure to DEP and greater than 90% of daily exposure to UFP

15. Children’s Pollutant Exposure During School Bus CommutesUCLA: Eduardo Behrentz, Lisa Sabin, Seong Lee, Kathleen Kozawa, Steve Colome and Arthur WinerUC Riverside: Dennis Fitz and David Pankratz

16. BACKGROUND • Children are a vulnerable population • 70% of school buses in California are powered by diesel engines and DEP is a TAC • Children may be exposed to high concentrations of diesel particles and gases during bus commutes, at school bus stops, or at loading/unloading zones • Some children in southern California spend up to three hours a day on school buses

21. Mean Pollutant Concentrations in Bus Commute Related Microenvironments & Background Air (Sabin et al. 2005) N/C = Concentration data were not collected; aThese values were measured around Los Angeles with the bus parked, engine off, and with the windows fully open and represent urban ambient air background concentrations during the study; bThe ranges are associated with the different bus types and window position (open and closed); cThe values within parentheses are the means for all runs; dIn 0.3–0.5 um size range; eFrom published data for Los Angeles basin. fNot enough data to establish a confidence interval.

24. KEY FINDINGS • In terms of exposure, bus commutes are much more important than bus stops or loading-unloading zones. • Peak pollutant concentrations occurred for close proximity to other diesel vehicles and when idling (due to bus’s own exhaust). • Impact of a bus’s own exhaust is most important when windows are closed due to self-pollution. • Cleaner fuels (e.g. CNG) and particle traps reduce pollutant concentrations inside bus.

25. Recommendations for Reducing Children’s Exposure During School Bus Commutes • Minimize time spent on sidewalks in front of schools when diesel school buses are arriving or departing. • Assign the cleanest buses to the longest routes. • Instruct school bus drivers to avoid other diesel school buses. • Develop strategies to shorten commute times. • Instruct school bus drivers to turn off engines immediately on arrival at a school; do not turn engines on until ready to depart. • Properly maintain in-use diesel school bus engines to eliminate visible exhaust. • Phase out conventional diesel school buses and replace with cleaner buses, such as CNG or trap-outfitted diesel.

26. GOODS MOVEMENTFROM THE PORTS Exposure Impacts Along Transportation Corridors

28. Where is this cargo going and how will it get there?

29. HOW CARGO CONTAINERS LEAVE THE PORTS According to Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority (ACTA): • 50% by big-rig diesel trucks directly to businesses or to distribution warehouses • Warehouses in Riverside & San Bernardino Counties where cargo is sorted and sent to other cities/states • 25% by truck on I-710 to intermodal facilities where containers transfer to trains • Downtown L.A., East L.A., Commerce • 25% onto Alameda Corridor, a 20-mile express railroad to downtown Los Angeles

30. Trucks on the Terminal Island Freeway

31. Terminal Island Fwy Hudson School Community Park

32. “Protecting” residents and students: a chain link fence!

33. POLICY IMPLICATIONS • .

34. REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS: A TRIPLE WIN • Phase out dirtiest school buses • Maintain buses to eliminate visible exhaust • Encourage more rapid turn-over or retrofit the dirtiest diesel trucks • Eliminate “super emitter” passenger cars • Adopt remote sensing and buy/crush plans • Electrify diesel transfer stations and cargo ship docks (ie. reduce diesel idling) • Adopt more stringent fuel economy standards

35. LIMITS OF TECHNICAL FIXES • > 50% of reductions in 2003 AQMP are in a “black box” of undefined measures • SCAQMD says they are out of viable options for cleaning up stationary sources • ARB’s ZEV program failed • Hybrids do not provide dramatic benefits • The “Hydrogen Highway” is pure hype • Major regulatory barriers exist to reducing marine and air traffic emissions • CONCLUSION: We must reduce VMT as well as emissions!

36. SMART GROWTH IMPLICATIONS • Reduce VMT and “cold starts” through “Smart Growth” strategies: • Create housing next to jobs and services • Use mass transit hubs as foci for housing • Promote mixed use and infill • But must avoid: • High density housing in close proximity to major roadways • Impacting residents with toxic air emissions from close-by industrial or retail sources

37. ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE • New EJ issues raised by our understanding of localized impacts of vehicle emissions: • Health disparity concerns may be overlooked by typical regional AQ “conformity” process • Non-white children 3-4 times more likely to live in areas with high traffic densities • UCLA research shows minority and high-poverty neighborhoods in LA bear over two times the traffic density of rest of So. Cal. • These findings add to traditional concerns about disproportionate impacts of toxic release facilities and other stationary air pollutant sources in minority communities

38. CONCLUSIONS • AQ problems occur at two distinct scales: • Regional smog vs localized vehicle/facility impacts • Addressing both poses new challenges for government, the private sector and the public: • Growth in region may prevent us from reaching AQ goals absent new approaches • We need a new paradigm: • Reduce diesel emissions from all sources • Develop effective strategies to reduce VMT • Eliminate gasoline “super emitters” • Create real and/or virtual “Buffers” along major roadways • Pay attention to EJ issues posed by direct vehicle emissions • Will require greater cooperation and integrated policy approaches across “disciplinary” agencies